M05-Archaeology

Change 100,000 ya to 500 ybc

Hunter Gather to First Societies to First Writing

We are medically identical to those who emerged from Africa some 100,000 years ago. They, like us, were are not all alike, we vary in keeping with the classic bell curve distribution – skills and attributes are not equally distributed. It’s certain they were just as good and bad, just as bright and dumb, as we are – humans are not perfect – yet we are the most overall capable animal to evolve on Earth. So capable we could lead to our own self destruction – human population has been exploding. With no human solution in sight mother natures laws keep us in check, the hard way if necessary. We are just passengers on space ship Earth and laws of the Cosmos are indifferent to human plight or desires.

Those migrating were in all likelihood a family, clan or tribal groups with a few exploring what’s ahead, before others followed. Except for a few scouts, they probably advanced in hunting packs, looking for food and suitable locations before calling up women and children – they were hunter gatherers, making do living off the land until a need to move on.

A hunting party of these two legged animals were a formidable force – few predator animals would dare take them on unless alone and defenseless. Humans are uniquely different. No other animal can walk upright and carry weapons they can throw from afar. No other can coordinate actions by sound and inflict harm while out of reach. They were the unquestioned king of beasts – their enemy was other humans – and unseen bacteria.

Ancient weapons and utensils

Early humans left archeological evidence of their handy work in the form of stone weapons and pottery containers. The quality of these improved with time.

Ancient artistry and crafts

Humans revealed their unique mental and physical ability in the form of cave drawings and physical objects – they can forecast back and ahead and express what their imaginations created. No other animal can do that.

Ancient monuments

Humans revealed their ability to work together for some common cause – sometimes spiritual – in preparation for an after life. The stonehenge preceded the pyramids – it’s real purpose can only be guessed. The human capability to formulate thoughts of the past and future – brought with it the desire to know what it’s all about, of what influences the now and future. Widely separated peoples always looked to the cosmos for explanations of the unknown.

Cradle of Western Civilization

Early civilizations emerged in the Tigris-Euphrates valley of Mesopotamia and the Nile valley of Egypt between 4000 and 3000 BC in river valleys. Also in the Indus valley of western India, China and Central America. By 3200 BC some form of government had developed in both river valleys, although settled communities had existed as early as 6000 BC in places like Jerico. Egypt was less susceptible to the invasions of the semi-civilized groups that repeatedly entered the Tigris‑Euphrates valley, and developed in relative isolation until the Hyksos invasion about 1680 BC.

Sumerians set the pattern for what would follow in the Near East

By 4000 BC the Sumerians had settled in the Tigris‑Euphrates valley and by 3000 B.C. many important city‑states appeared as Ur, Eridu, Lagash, and Nippur. These cities were fiercely jealous and one seldom dominated for long. Each city-state was administered by an official who represented the highest political, religious, and military authority. The First Dynasty of Ur (2500‑2300 BC) dominated most of Sumer and part of Akkad.

The Sumerians organized life in large cities of mud-brick buildings, surrounded by lush fields and gardens. They set up a division of labor, marshaled hundreds of laborers for public works, invented a written language, devised a system of laws, educated their young, and prayed to a pantheon of gods. The gods included An of the heavens, Enlil of the air, and Enki of the waters, as well as gods of other natural phenomena, and patron gods for every city.

Cuneiform Tablet Sargon Sumerian woman appeal to heaven Arch stepped ziggurat at Ur to honor moon god

The Sumerians erected massive temples, topped by a shrine and rising in tiers to 150 feet or more. These so-called ziggurats were administered by priests, who served the gods and received offerings from the people. Priests also collected food in storerooms surrounding the base of the temple and redistributed the goods, kept tax records, and oversaw the construction of other large-scale works such as irrigation canals. In their appeals to the gods to prevent disasters-flood, fire, or pestilence-people used stand-in figurines in their likeness, shaped of clay or stone, to be placed in the temple to pray for help. The vault, arch, and dome were all inventions of the Sumerians. Their best known structure was the ziggurat, a pyramidal tower with a shrine at the top. In the absence of stone, sun‑dried brick was used. Sumerian artisans excelled in sculpture and metal work.

Prior to 3000 B.C. the Sumerians had developed a wedge‑shaped writing called cuneiform. The signs were pressed into small clay tablets with a reed and then dried in the sun or baked. The Sumerians used a sexagesimal system of counting. Ten was the basic number, sixty the next, and then six hundred. A lunar year of 12 months and contained 354 days. The Sumerians developed a system of weights and measures, their mina was a bit more than a pound. Their principle of proportionate retaliation was the base for the Hammurabi Code. The Sumerians left an extensive literature in the form of epics, hymns, and proverbs; copied by the later Babylonians. The tale of Noah is a Sumerian contributions. The Babylonian Creation Epic is similar to Hebrew Genesis. Sumerians faith offered no hope of resurrection and their deities had all of the strengths and weaknesses of mortals -- Sumerian religion did not demand standards of morality.

A signature seal and its impression, showing a Sumerian ruler in audience with his local god.

Sumerian harp with gold bulls head. Depiction of Hammurabi

Propelled by the need to record business transactions for stored or traded goods or to keep count of numbers of sheep, the Sumerians invented bullae - soft clay balls that were hollow inside. Buyers or sellers would press sharp tokens into the clay and place them inside. Deeper indentations meant larger quantities. In case of a dispute, the bulla could be opened and the tokens recounted. This record-keeping rapidly advanced to pictographs-simple representations of the object traded-incised on clay tablets. Merchants used cylindrical clay seals to roll on and impress their signature on a deal.

Akkadians centered about the city of Babylon, and under Sargon I controlled the entire Tigris‑Euphrates valley as far north as the Taurus Mountains. Akkadians adopted Sumerian culture including cuneiform writing, system of weights and measures, and the Sumerian calendar; then surpassed their Sumerian teachers in the art of seal cutting and stone sculpture. Guti swept into Mesopotamia around 2150 BC from their home in Persia and briefly dominated. Sumerian revival Around 2070 BC Sumerians reestablish their authority centered on Ur where commerce thrived, and cultural achievement reached its zenith with defined codes of law. Amorites (Babylonians) moved into Mesopotamia from Syria around 2000 BC and ruled until a Kassite incursion around 1670 BC. The greatest Amorite ruler Hammurabi (1728‑1686 BC) created permanent administrations for his domains, set up law courts, a system of taxation, and rules for military service. His numerous letters mark him as a model administrator. Hammurabi's Code of Laws was his greatest legacies. Its 282 paragraphs were based on Sumerian and Semitic precedents. It dealt with property rights, personal injuries, family affairs, and a host of other matters.

Tammuz chased by Marduk Hurrian (1800 BC) Horse drawn chariot Gold Ring origin unk.

Babylonian Marduk replaced Summer Tammuz as the leader of the gods.

Early Nations

Egyptian duck hunting from his papyrus boat Egyptian princess is having her hair set in tight curls.

Osiris in judgment as dog-headed creature weighs heart of princess against a feather. Isis stands behind the princess.

Hall of the Temple of Karnak (reconstruction) Pharaoh Khafre Egyptian Dancing Girls (painting) Egyptian collar of beads

Egyptian Civilization was concentrated on a 550 mile long by 12 miles wide strip of cultivatable Nile valley land, supporting 7 million people, between desert on both sides. Its 3000‑year history has been divided into dynastic periods: Predynastic Period (4000‑3200 BC) during which Egypt developed a system of writing, an irrigation network, a calendar, and a system of government. Protodynastic Period (3200‑2750 BC) during which legendary Menes supposedly united Upper and Lower Egypt. Old Kingdom. (2750‑2270 BC) an era of pyramid building, reaching magnificence with the Great Pyramid of Cheops at Gizeh. During this period the Pharaohs had absolute authority. First Intermediate (2270‑2160 BC) was a feudal age. Middle Kingdom (2160‑1788 BC) order was restored when the Eleventh Dynasty of Thebes was able to win control of Egypt. The patron deity of Thebes, Amun, became identified with Ra as head of the Egyptian pantheon. This was the classical period of Egyptian literary achievement. Painting and sculpture flourished. Trade with Syria and Punt was extensive. In addition, irrigation was pushed and a dam built in the Fayuni area to store water in the event that the Nile was low. Second Intermediate Period (1788‑1680 BC) another feudal period during which chaotic conditions existed. Hyksos Era (1680‑1580 BC) Syrian and Palestinian Semites driven south into Egypt by Indo‑European peoples from north of the Black and Caspian Seas. Called "shepherd kings" their invasion ended 2000 years of Egyptian isolation. Avaris, in Lower Egypt, became the Hyksos capital. Upper Egypt sent tribute to the Hyksos, but that area remained unoccupied. The Hyksos readily adopted Egyptian culture and the old state administration. The horse and chariot were brought to Egypt by the Hyksos. New Empire‑(1580‑1090 BC) Ahmose I pursued the Hyksos into Asia and laid the foundation for the Egyptian expansion. Under Thutmose 1 (1525‑1508 BC) Palestine and Syria were temporarily overrun. Thutmose 3 (1501‑1447 BC) crushed the Kadesh Confederacy and made Egyptian authority paramount in Syria and Palestine. Egypt reached pinnacle of power during Amenhotep 3 (1411‑1375 BC). During Amenhotep 4 decline became evident, nothing was done to meet a new Hittite challenge. Ramses 2 (1292‑1225 BC) managed to hold the state together despite ambush at Kadesh by the Hittites (1288 BC). Period of Decline (1090‑525 BC) an era of weak kings and powerful priests. Libyan and Ethiopian invaders often ruled the land. The culture of the period was a slavish imitation of the past. Persian armies conquered Egypt in 525 BC.

Tomb painting of Pharaoh received by Osiris to underworld King Tut gold mask King Tutankhamun anointed with perfume by Queen Ankhesenamun .

Egyptian Writing Nile valley people developed several systems of writing including hieroglyphics, a sacred form of writing that included 600 signs. The Rosetta Stone enabled deciphering this language. Sculpture became conventionalized, statues had arms at sides and the left foot thrust forward. Medical Papyri indicate that the Egyptians were making some progress in the art of healing, including many worthless remedies, but were the first documents in which medical data was assembled.

Egyptian Beliefs of Old Kingdom centered about the immortality of the Pharaoh but did not grant a life in the next world to the masses. Middle Kingdom the people were able to reach this exalted state because of the god Osiris. Ra and Osiris vied for supremacy. The Egyptian religion placed no emphasis on an ethical life. Prayers and magical formulae from the Book of the Dead were sold by priests.

Egyptian Commerce Egypt developed an extensive trade with Syria, Crete, and Punt during the Middle Kingdom. Wheat, gold wares, and linen were exported. Ivory, cedar wood, tapestries, and ebony were imported. Copper mining, tanning, stone quarrying, and bronze making were important local industries.

Hittites emanated from central and southeastern Asia Minor (Turkey). Though agriculture and shepherding were main occupations, they were the first to smelt iron in quantity. The Hittite king derived his authority from a council of nobles called the pankus. By 1500 BC. the Hittites had developed a legal code noted for its humane features. The Hittites spoke an Indo‑European language. After 1900 BC the Hittites pressed south into Syria. Under Mursilis 1 (1620‑1590 BC) the loose confederation of city‑states was changed into a powerful empire. Egyptian power in Syria was challenged by the Hittites until the Mitanni brought about a temporary eclipse of their power (1500‑1375 BC). Shubbiluliuma (1375‑1335 BC) brought the Hittite empire into conflict with Egypt. Invasions of the Sea Peoples resulted in the destruction of the Hittite realm around 1190 BC.

Other Near Eastern States (2000‑1200 BC) Elamites This people was subject to Sumerian and Akkadian rule during most of the third millennium BC. For a brief period around 2000 BC the Elamites pressed into Mesopotamia from the cast, but were later beaten by Hammurabi and the Amorites. Kassites an Indo‑European group moved into the Tigris‑Euphrates valley from the Iranian highlands to the east around 1677 BC. It is believed that the Kassites brought the horse to Mesopotamia. Kassites waged a war against the Hittites; by 1169 BC Assyrian, Median, Babylonian, and Elamite pressure put an end to the Kassite kingdom. Hurrians (1800 BC) from present day Turkey, overran parts of Syria and Palestine, brought the horse‑drawn chariot into western Asia. The chief deities of the Hurrians were storm god Teshub and sun goddess Hepa. The Hurrians were absorbed by other peoples of Syria and Palestine. Mitanni occupied an area that included much of northern Syria and Mesopotamia (1500 BC). The Mitanni held off the Egyptian forces of Thutmose III and kept the Assyrians in subjugation. By 1300 BC the rising state of Assyria crushed the Mitanni.

The Era of Small States (1200‑800 BC)

With the decline of Egyptian and Hittite power after 1200 BC, the Near East entered an era notable for the absence of great powers.

Hittite Lydian Phrygian

Phrygians came from Greece and settled in central Anatolia (Turkey) 1200 BC. They brought with them Greek ideas and practices. Cybele, Great Mother, was the chief deity and headed the fertility cult known for its wild ceremonies and dances. Phrygian power was great from 900 to about 547 BC then waned after defeat by the Lydians in 610 BC.

Ludians holding the territory between Phrygia and Ionian coastal towns to the west. Lydians are credited with the invention of metal coins and made contributions in music, dancing and excelled in weaving and purple dyeing. The Persians under Cyrus overran Lydia in 547 BC.

Arameans came from Syrian desert 1400 BC but Hittites and Assyrians prevented them from entering the Tigris valley. An Aramean kingdom was organized around Damascus in the tenth century BC. The Arameans were noted for their ability in international trade and their language was used everywhere in the Near East.

Phoenicians a nation of sea‑traders lived in coastal ports of Acre, Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos on shores of present Lebanon. After the decline of Minoan and Mycenaean sea power the Phoenicians succeeded in dominating the commercial life of the Mediterranean. Phoenician colonies were established in Carthage, Cyprus, and southern Spain. The greatest Phoenician contribution was their alphabet. It had 22 consonants and no vowels and become the basis for most ancient and modern alphabets. For the better part of the period 1500‑1300 BC Phoenicia was dominated by Egypt. From 1000‑774 BC the city of Tyre took the lead, followed by a century and a half of Assyrian domination.

Phoenician coast Phoenician carved ivory Kingdom of Israel Torah, first five books of the Bible

Phoenician sea and Aramean land traders greatly aided evolution of the alphabet

Hebrews Abraham (1700 BC) was born in Ur and his family moved west due to migrations from the east. Abraham developed a belief in one God and his beliefs were followed by his son Israel who led the tribe joining Hyksos moving south into the fertile delta region of Egypt. At first they were accepted then enslaved by Ramses II about 1300 for his building programs. The Hebrews became known as Israelis and their oral history later known as the Torah, first five books of the bible, tell the story of Moses leading them out of Egypt to a promised land about 1200 BC. Their history as told in Exodus tells of entrance into Palestine and eventual the subjugation of the Canaanites. Moses is given credit for welding Hebrew tribes together as a nation. The twelve Hebrew tribes (1200-1030) formed a loose confederation where leaders as Samson, Gideon, or Samuel took charge in time of war. Under Saul (1030‑1005 BC) and David (1005‑965 BC) the Philistines, Edomites, and Moabites were brought under control. A sense of national consciousness developed. The Hebrew kingdom reached its greatest size under David. Under Solomon (965‑925 BC) the Hebrews made alliances with Egypt and Tyre. A great building program was inaugurated at Jerusalem. Heavy taxation and forced labor made the regime unpopular. After Solomon's death the Hebrew kingdom split into a southern state of Judah and a northern state of Israel.

The kingdom of Israel continued to exist for two centuries until the Assyrians under Sargon II crushed it in 722 BC. Judah managed to maintain its independence until 586 B.C. when the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar seized Jerusalem. Many Hebrews were taken to Mesopotamia in the so‑called Babylonian Captivity (586‑538 BC). The Persian ruler Cyrus permitted the Hebrews to return to Palestine in 538 BC, as a buffer against Egypt. The Hebrews remained under Achaemenid rule until Alexander the Great conquered the area in 332 BC.

Hebrew religion The Hebrew faith emphasized belief in one supreme deity, monotheism. Yahweh was the one god of the Hebrews. The Hebrew religion demanded an adherence to ethical standards. Such prophets as Amos and Ezra often called the leaders and populace to task for lax moral behavior. The Torah contained teachings of God as revealed through the prophets or discovered by the sages. Ezra must be given credit for giving the Torah its position of importance. Its 613 commandments provided the Hebrews with a rigid code of personal and ritualistic behavior. The Hebrew faith had a great influence on several religions that emerged at a later time. Christianity, for example, borrowed much of its theology as well as the Ten Commandments.

Hebrew written history prior to Babylonian Captivity (586‑538 BC) is oral history put in writing after writing had been sufficiently developed.

Assyrians lived in Assur, Arbela and Nineveh in NE corner of the Fertil Crescent and long dominated by Sumerians, Akkadians, Elamites, and Amorites. Assyrians expanded under Adadnirari (1310-1280 BC) when Hittite, Egyptian, and Kassite influence declined. After two centuries of decline (1100‑885 BC) the Assyrians revived with 200 years of expansion followed with a zenith of power Sargron II (722‑705 BC). After the death of Assurbanipal in 626 BC decline came quickly. Babylonians and Medes razed Nineveh in 612 BC, and Assyrian military power was permanently destroyed.

Assyrians Scenes Lion hunt from Assurbanipal’s Palace Argon II Fortress Palace at Khorsaban (reconstruction)

Assyrian civilization The Assyrian army Prussian like efficiency made it the terror of the Near East, committing fearful atrocities during conquests. Most Assyrians were engaged in agriculture, many peasants were serfs, commerce and industry were ignored. Their chief deity was Assur, a god that fought beside their soldiers in battle. The Assyrians had no belief in a hereafter. Although they did not excel in the arts, they did some fine work in stone sculpture and palace building and compiled a library of 22,000 cuneiform tablets at Nineveh.

Assyrian Winged Bull from Sargon’s Palace Chaldeans mapped the heavenly scenes, one per moon cycle,

12 per year these became Astrologist Signs

Chaldeans a Semitic people in southern Mesopotamia, organized the Neo‑Babylonian Empire under Nabopolassar (625‑605 BC). With the Medes, they crushed the Assyrians and razed Nineveh in 612 BC. Under Nebuchadnezzar (605‑562 BC) Chaldeans reached their pinnacle. Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine were subjugated. Hanging Gardens and Ishtar Gate adorned the city of Babylon. The Persians under Cyrus seized Babylon in 539 BC.

Chaldean civilization Chaldeans identified their deities with the planets, Marduk, was linked to Jupiter and deities could no longer be influenced by man. The gods were all‑powerful, but their intentions were unknown and they fatalistically submitted themselves to the will of the gods. Like their Sumerian predecessors, the Chaldeans had no interest in the hereafter, prayed for material betterment on earth with no particularly interested in ethical values. Chaldean science The Chaldean astronomers worked out a 7‑day week and a 24‑hour day and were motivated by a desire to better understand the wishes of the gods. They showed no particular originality in literature or the other arts.

Crete lower right Minoan Fresco

Minoans were an early civilization that developed on the island of Crete in the eastern Mediterranean named after a legendary King Minos. They fished and sailed and traded widely with Greece, Anatolia, Egypt, and Phoenicia. About 2000 BC they built cities and a series of grand palaces on Crete and extended their influence to other islands. The palaces served as administrative centers and storehouses for food stuffs and trade goods, such as grain, olive oil, wine, and finely crafted pottery. Minoans also invented a script, called Linear A which served for record-keeping in trade. About 1700 BC a series of earthquakes disrupted their mode of life, and a cataclysmic volcanic eruption on the nearby island of Thera rained volcanic ash on Crete and destroyed most of Thera. Eventually the Minoans rebuilt their cities and palaces and added improvements such as indoor plumbing and sewer systems to their houses. But their wealth attracted invaders and by 1100 BC the island and their culture lay in ruins. Their legacy continued throughout the Mediterranean and among the inhabitants of Greece.

Persians were an Aryan people who came to Iran around 650 BC and initially subjected to Mede rule until a revolt under Cyrus around 550 BC. Cyrus founded the Achaemenid Dynasty (559‑331 BC) which lasted until its destruction by Alexander the Great. By 539 BC Cyrus had conquered Chaldea, Lydia, Syria, and Palestine. His successor, Cambyses (529‑522 BC), added Egypt to the Persian domains. Under Darius (521‑485 BC) the empire was reorganized into administrative districts for greater efficiency. Darius' plans to crush Greece , due to aid the Geeks gave to the cities of Ionia resulted in a first attempt that failed in 492 B.C. because a storm destroyed the expedition. Darius made a second try in 490 BC, but the Athenians defeated his forces at Marathon.

Xerxes (485‑465 BC) continued the campaign against Hellas. Persia suffered a crushing naval defeat at Salamis in 480 BC. Her land forces were beaten decisively at Plataea in 479 BC. The Greek war dragged on for three additional decades until it was officially ended by the Peace of Cimon in 449 BC. After Xerxes, Persian power and prestige sank to a new low and Persia became a ripe target for Alexander the Great.

Left, old men from Syria bringing gifts to the emperor at Persepolis - gold vessels, bracelets, horses, even a chariot (from Xerxes' palace). Right Xerxes palace area at Persepolis.

Persian civilization The Persian Empire was divided into 20 satrapies for administrative purposes. Excellent roads serviced this vast empire, of important was the royal road between Susa and Sardis. Because of the excellent network of roads, a fine postal system existed. Most Persians were peasants ruled by a powerful nobility. Important cities were few in number. Susa was the capital, but Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Ecbatana were also important. Palace building was one of the few architectural achievements of the Persians. The arch was not used. The Persians did little original work in art and borrowed heavily from the Babylonians, Hittites, and Egyptians.

Persian Religion Though Persians permitted the worship of other deities their rulers made the teaching of Zoroaster their religion. Zoroastrian dualism made Ahura‑Mazda the personification of good, while Ahriman represented all that was evil. These two deities were engaged in a battle for supremacy, but Ahura‑Mazda would win in the end. The Zoroastrian faith predicted the coming of a judgment day. The Zoroastrian faithful believed that a messiah, Saoshyant, would come prior to the end of this world. Zoroastrianism demanded an ethical and temperate life. It was a revealed faith whose secrets were received by Zoroaster from Ahura‑Mazda. Many tenets and ideas were recorded in the sacred Avesta.

Summary of Emerging Beliefs

Judaism was the product of Hebrew-Israeli beliefs that evolved from the time of Abraham (1700) to the written version of the Torah, first five books of the bible, when handed down oral history became written history about 550 BC. Their written history included oral histories handed down by Sumerians and Babylonians as to origins expressed in the book of Genesis, Moses stories and the 10 commandments. A study of what is written shows that Abrahams belief in a Father God, head of his family, was reshaped to an all inclusive god that outranked other god encountered when mixing with agricultural fertility gods in Canaan the promised land. It also revealed a struggle between the concept as an exclusive god for the chosen vs all inclusive all powerful god. Once put in writing it became the beginning from which later Judaism and Christianity were built.

Zoroastrianism was imported into Persia (Iran) north of the Alps by people later called Aryans, who arrived on horseback with iron weapons and the chariot. They branched with some going into India and giving birth to the Hindu religion while Zoroaster spread the word among Persian people – including acceptance by Persian kings. Whereas Judaism was founded on eye for an eye harsh proportional punishment, Zoroaster spread the concepts of forgiveness and reward and punishment, of heaven and hell, and the concept of a following savior.

The story of Christ would be written some 200 years after his death, but many of his teachings were in all likelihood acquired from Zoroastrian wise men because many of Christian beliefs had there near east origin from Zoroastrian. Hebrews beliefs did not include Heavenly Angels or a Satan’s Hell or the coming of a savior.

Summary of Behavior Standards

Rule was absolute with competition between secular and religious authority for control. The priesthood tended manage civil affairs for an all powerful military leader – each mutually dependent on the other. Females were property of the male, a father could sell daughters and wives and own as many females as he could afford and defend. There was constant warfare of a brutal kind, prisoners were either enslaved or killed. A human slave was a programmable productive machine if controlled.

Laws were set up to handle the difference in inheritance born of free vs slave mothers. Life was harsh and short. Whenever wealth was acquired it was sought by invaders. Power was constantly changing hands causing people to be on the move. Human history consisted of battles between humans. In some ways things are unchanged in that part of the world.

Yet that part of the world lifted human knowledge by developing skills and methods for future growth. Once people could express themselves in writing the door was opened to a new era, one pursued primarily by the Greeks.