W-NG04-Classic-500BC-500

BCE = Before Common Era :: CE = Common Era

Extracted from National Geographic “Concise History of the World”

Left column: MA=Middle East & Africa, E=Europe, AO=Asia & Oceania, A=Americas

	500 – 400 BCE
MA	500 The cities of Ionia, ethnically Greek but located in Asia Minor, throw off their Persian governors to begin the Persian Wars between the Greek city‑states and the Achaemenid Empire of Darius I of Persia. 483 Xerxes, son and successor of Darius 1, prepares a huge incursion of perhaps 100,000 troops into the Greek mainland by constructing a floating bridge over the Hellespont, consisting of 676 ships lined up in two rows. 449 The Peace of Callias is struck between Persia and the Greek city‑states. It will last for most of the next century. 490 Carthaginian navigator Hanno sets sail with 30,000 people on 60 boats with the intent of founding colonies on the Atlantic Coast of Africa. He reaches modern‑day Gambia, Sierra Leone, and perhaps Cameroon, founding colonies the entire way. ca 460 Herodotus embarks on his tour of the known world, traveling to spots as far‑flung as Egypt, Aswan, Libya, Syria, Babylon, and Susa. Upon his return to Athens, he publicly recites his history of the war between the Greeks and Persians. 521‑486 Darius I claims divine right to rule through Zoroastrianism, a belief system founded in the late sixth century by Iranian thinker Zarathustra. This new religion, popular among Persian aristocrats and elites gains a sizeable priesthood and a considerable following in Persian lands. 445 Nehemiah returns to Jerusalem from captivity in Babylon. He becomes govern rebuilds the city walls, and institutes soc reforms. Together with Ezra, he oversees signing of the Jewish covenant to obey the laws of Moses, avoid mixed marriages, a support the temple. 500 Expansion continues on Persia's Road, which stretches about 1,600 ,from Sardis in western Anatolia to in western Persia. It is set up with 111 staging posts. 480 During a siege of Athens, the Persian uses arrows wrapped with fibers that been soaked in oil‑the first known projectile torches. ca 450 Iron tool technology spreads across bringing with it an increase in agricultural surplus, trade, and population. ca 500 Gimillu, a slave of a temple community in Mesopotamia, is involved in a number of legal cases involving fraud, bribery, and embezzlement. In each case he manages to avoid harsh punishment. His example shows that at this time, even slaves could form powerful, protective relationships. ca 600 Semitic people from Arabia migrate to Eritrea and Ethiopia and set up a trade network of ivory, spices, and incense. 486 Darius I of Persia, having set up a system of administration that will last for centuries, dies at the age of 35. He 'is succeeded by his son Xerxes. 500 Indian surgeon Susrata performs ions on cataracts as well as creating noses from skin grafts. ca 500 Horse riding nomadic groups are firmly established on the Eurasian steppes. They live in tents that can be easily dismantled and transported. ca 483 Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha, dies. His teachings, the core of which are known as the Four Noble Truths, go on to influence scores of adherents all over the world. 479 Chinese thinker and educator Confucius dies. Having unsuccessfully attempted to become a powerful administrator in his own day, his teachings compiled in the Analects will go on to profoundly influence subsequent political and cultural traditions in China.
E	490 Greek forces prevail at the Battle of Marathon, halting a Persian incursion into the Greek peninsula. 480 At King Xerxes' behest, Carthaginians attack Greek cities in Sicily where they are defeated at the Battle of Himera. Meanwhile, Persian forces are weakened by a small band of Spartans at the pass of Thermopylae. 446 Athenian statesman Pericles avoids a possible war with Sparta and afterwards becomes the leading political voice in Athens. 500 Greek traveler and writer Hecataeus of Miletus details the geography and ethnography of Europe, northern Africa, and Asia in his Tour Around the World‑considered the first geography book. ca 480 Celts of mainland Europe begin migrating to Britain in large numbers, greatly changing the makeup of its population. 464 A severe earthquake in Sparta kills tens of thousands of people. A serf revolt follows, throwing the city into disarray. ca 500 Etruscan art flourishes, inspired by Greek influences to the south. 472 Greek dramatist Aeschylus wins the Athenian tragedy prize for his earliest ex play, Persians. 450 The first written code of law of Rome Twelve Tables, is placed in the Roman Forum 447 Athenian statesman Pericles commissions the sculptor Phidias to be artist director for the construction of the Parth It is finished in ten years and houses the Athena Parthenos, a 38 foot tall gold an ivory statue of the patron deity. 500 Pythagoreans hypothesize from mathematical principles that the Earth is a sphere. 500 The trireme is developed in Greece. It become the essential warship for both and Romans. 500 The catapult is developed in Italy. 450 Mechanical starting gates for chariot foot races are employed at the Olympic s for the first time. 450 Greek philosopher and astronomer Anaxagoras of Clazomenae is banished from s for his theory that the sun is a giant ball of molten iron. ca 500 The use of coins expands throughout most of Greece, except in Sparta, where ownership of silver or gold is unlawful. ca 500 The chariot is introduced in Britain. 445 The office of tribune is opened to plebeians in Rome. Also, the ban on marriage between a plebeian and a patrician is lifted. 400s Spartan society, characterized by military rigor and social austerity, dominates southern Greece. Neighboring people are relegated to the status of agricultural farmhands. 400s Pederasty between a young boy and his tutor is openly accepted in Greek society.
AO	ca 500 Achaemenid rule in the northwestern Indian province of Gandhara introduces Persian techniques of imperial administration to autonomous rulers on the Indian sub continent, and encourages commerce between the two areas. ca 500 The Indian state of Maghada, near the mouth of the Ganges, emerges as a regional power. Over ensuing centuries, it will expand control over neighboring states. ca 480 The Zhou dynasty collapses, bringing about the Warring States period in China, characterized by political disunity and philosophical inquiry. ca 450 Sinhalese migrants from northern India settle in modern day Sri Lanka and set up a capital at Anuradhapura, along the Aruvi Aru River. 400s Trade is conducted on a regular basis between Indian merchants and those of Indonesia and southeast Asia. ca 500 Vardhamana Mahavira, the great teacher of Jainism, abandons all worldly goods to live as an ascetic and preach hi doctrine of rigorous austerity to disciples throughout northern India. Jainism's guiding principle of ahimsa demands nonviolence toward all living things and their souls. ca 500 Siddhartha Gautama, the historic Buddha, teaches disciples in northern Inc philosophy of compassion and wisdom to transcend worldly suffering. ca 500 Confucius teaches disciples in Ch the principles of propriety and filial devot
A	ca 500 Tres Zapotes, on Mexico's Gulf Coast, is the center of Olmec culture, following the abandonment and ritual destruction of La Venta. ca 500 Monte Albin is established in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, on a hill from which leaders can survey their lands. ca 500 The Paracas cult of coastal Peru practices mummification and delivering their dead to sacred place in mountainous regions, tradition which will continue to the time of the Incas. 400s The Olmec employ a of hieroglyphic writing that be a very early precursor to Maya hieroglyphics. It has yet been deciphered. 400s The cloaks that enshroud Paracas mummies are of a remarkable quality. Their intricate designs will have a strong influence on later Nazca art. 400s A common practice of the Paracas people of Peru is to bind the skulls of infants, resulting in a more elongated, peaked crown. ca 500 Groups of people In modern day Indiana, Kentucky, and West Virginia, known collectively as the Adena, live in circular houses with conical roofs. They construct earthen burial mounds, which influence the later Hopewell culture.
	440—370 BCE
MA	424 In the year of the four emperors In Persia, King Ataxerxes I dies and is succeeded by his son Xerxes II. Xerxes II is murdered in his bed by his illegitimate brother Sogdianos, who is defeated and put to death by another illegitimate brother, who reigns as Darius II during a period of revolt. Darius II's successor, Ataxerxes II, rules for 46 years in constant conflict with the Greeks and, later on, with rebellious governors in Egypt and Anatolia. 399 Xenophon's Anabasis details all the stages of his retreat from Kounaxa, near Babylon, to Greece, crossing Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. He describes the 29 nations making up his army, the soldiers' weapons and dress, the terrain traversed, and all the events of the march. 390s The hanging gardens of Babylon are described by Greek writer Ctesias, who had served in Babylon as the queen's physician. 500‑300 The development of Torah Judaism brings with it a detailed application of law to all aspects of Jewish life, sets Jews off from surrounding peoples, and preserves Jewish customs and rites. 430 The Hall of a Hundred Pillars in Persepolis is completed during the reign of King Ataxerxes 1. 378 Nekhtenebef initiates Egypt's 30th dynasty and ushers in a period of prosperity and building, including the earliest temple the island of Philae, which is now covered the waters of the Aswan Dam. Ca 400 Democritus visits Babylon and brings its astronomy, but not it’s medicine, back to Greece 400s The qanat system of underground canals to distribute water to arid regions for agriculture is expanded on the Iranian plateau. The product of an enormous amount and slave labor, many of these tunnels still in use today. 423‑404 Parysatis, wife and half sister of Darius II, is an able queen who owns land in many parts of the empire and is involved in politics. She is accused of imprisoning several of her husband's rivals. 401 Greek historian Xenophon joins the mercenary troops of Persian rebel Cyrus the younger. After Cyrus is killed near Babylon, Xenophon commands the rear guard for the long march back. He will write his history of the expedition soon afterwards.
E	400s Rome consolidates its power in central Italy over Etruscans and neighboring peoples. 431 The Second Peloponnesian War breaks out in Greece between the two main powers of the Delian League, Athens and Sparta. 430 Athenian statesman Pericles exhorts his countrymen and infantry to remain within the walls of Athens to avoid a battle on land with Sparta. Plague sweeps through the city, decimating his forces and souring his people's loyalty. Pericles dies soon afterwards. 404 After 27 years of a pitched civil war, the city of Athens falls to Sparta and its allies. Athens loses its fleet and its territories. 436 A famine strikes Rome. It is so severe that thousands commit suicide by throwing themselves into the Tiber River. ca 400 Celtic tribes known collectively by the Romans as Gauls move across Europe into northern Italy, France, and Germany. ca 396 Once Rome draws the Etruscan lands of northern Italy into its sphere of influence, it gains access to the large scale iron industry already in place there. ca 430 Greek historian Herodot completes his Histories, in which he details the interactions between the Greek world and Persia. Taking a wider view of history than its predecessors, this work garners its author the title "father of history." 43.5 Athenian dramatist Euripides write Trojan Women. It is a harsh critique of the cruelty and misogyny of war. 396 The Olympic Games hold contests for trumpeters and heralds for the first time.. ca 387 Greek philosopher Plato founds the Academy, a school of philosophy in Athens. 440 Greek mathematician Hippocrates of writes what is considered the first mathematical text book. It expounds on the proofs of geometry ca 400 Hippocrates of Cos begins compiling Corpus Hippocraticum, consisting of around 70 works presumably by various authors. It initiates the science of medicine with subjects ranging from pharmaceutical mixtures to a rejection of superstition. ca 400 The seminomadic Scythians of what is now Crimea in southern Russia develops saddles equipped with stirrups. Ca 375 The screw is invented in Italy. ca 440 At the height of his influence, Pericles broadens opportunities for participation in government, employs thousands in grand building projects, and strongly encourages the arts, sciences, and philosophy. 404 Athenian historian Thucydides dies. His work History of the Peloponnesian War appears soon afterwards. 399 Greek philosopher Socrates, having established the foundations of the Western philosophical tradition, is sentenced to death for impiety and corrupting the youth.
AO	400s Walls are built by various states in northern China to repel nomadic Xiongnu tribes to the North and as a defense against rival Chinese states. Many of these walls will later be consolidated into the Great Wall. 400s The northeastern Indian state of Maghada increasingly controls trade along the Ganges River and between India and Burma. 400s Jainism, which recognizes no hierarchical classes of human beings, draws many converts in northern India from members of lower castes, who do not derive much esteem from the traditional social or of Indian society. Its ascetic doctrine, thou is too demanding to appeal to the masses. 400s Buddhism spreads through northern India. Early monks, actively preaching and disseminating the teachings of the Buddha, use the vernacular language of the day, rather than Sanskrit, in order to reach a wider audience. 437 The first known hospital is established in Ceylon , modern day Sri Lanka. ca 400 The Chinese begin using bitumen in lamps, the first known use of oil as a source ca 400 The Chinese invent the iron for pressing garments. Live embers provide the necessary heat. 400s Iron replaces bronze as the dominant metal of warfare in China. ca 430 Chinese philosopher Mozi founds his school of Mohism, based on universal love, the virtues of egalitarianism, and a rejection of war and extravagance. ca 400 The use of coins is spread to northern India from Greece via Persia. ca 390 Legalism appears in China, a system of thought which seeks to strengthen and expand the state at all costs. It strongly emphasizes agriculture and the military over trade, art, and education and seeks to order society through a rigid set of severe laws.
A	ca 400 The Olmec cultural tradition and trade network in Mesoamerica is on the decline. Patterns the Olmec have established will continue through the Maya, Zapotec, and Teotihuacan cultures. ca 400 The Chavin de Hufintar culture maintains its position of prominence in northern Peru. 400s The domestication of beans spreads from Mexico into the North American Southwest. This enhances the diet of native peoples and helps nurture depleted soil. Together with squash and corn, beans become a staple food of North America. 400s The Barrier Canyon rock art style of Colorado plateau is characterized by stylize anthropomorphic figures. ca 400 The burgeoning Zapotec culture of southern Mexico u a calendar and a system of writing, possibly derived from previous Olmec culture. Ca 400 Trephination, a surgical procedure by re sections of the skull are excised with a saw like implement, is developed in modern day Peru. It is effectively used to treat head injuries, migraines and seizures. 400s Benefitting from abundant marine and inland food sources, the population of modern‑day coastal California becomes one of the largest concentrations of people in North America. 400s The origins of the Zapotec: culture appear around the city of Monte Allotin, in the Oaxaca Valley of Mexico, which is home to some 5,000 inhabitants. ca 400 The Valley of Mexico is settled by nascent agriculturalists.
	370 – 310 BCE
MA	334 Alexander the Great, son of Philip II, invades Persia with his small but extremely well trained army of Macedonian soldiers. 331 Alexander destroys the Persian forces of the Achaemenid Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela. He then goes on to raze the grand imperial center, Persepolis. 312 Seleucus, Alexander's general and heir to his Asian Empire, enters Babylon and ushers in the Seleucid era, regaining Bactria from Chandragupta Maurya in 306. 300s Carthage, a Phoenician colony in modern‑day Tunisia, dominates the politics and commerce of the western Mediterranean. ca 350 A new strain of wheat is introduced into Egypt, from which bread can be easily produced. Combined with the Ptolemaic dynasty's support of agriculture, this development helps make Egypt the granary of Rome. 332 Alexander destroys Tyre and builds Alexandria in Egypt to be the center of Hellenistic commerce. 329 Alexander crosses Hindu Kush into Bactria to defeat its satrap Bessos, completing a 1,500 mile march through Northwest India. On his return to western Iran, he marries his troops to Iranian women in an attempt to meld Greeks and Persians into one people. 356 The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus is burned by Herostratus and rebuilt even more magnificently, demonstrating the wealth of the Greek cities of Asia Minor under Persian rule. ca 332 As they campaign through the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander's forces burn many Zoroastrian temples and kill many priests, or magi. Since doctrines of this faith are transmitted orally, many holy verses and hymns are lost to posterity, and the future of the religion is left uncertain. 324 3,000 musicians arrive from Greece to northwestern Iran to perform at a feast for Alexander. 367 Kidinna of Sippar improves the astronomical calendar to a greater degree than even 19^th century astronomers could achieve with telescopes. ca 366 Greek mathematician and astronomer Eudoxus of Cnidus establishes a school in Cyzicus, Asia Minor. Here he works to formulate a systematic explanation of the motion of the sun, stars, moon, and planets nd the earth. 350 The Nok culture, an agricultural community of West Africa, develops the manufacture of iron, yet continues the use of stone tools. 350 The city of Ife‑Ife in present‑day Nigeria is first occupied. Construction of city walls suggests that urbanism in West Africa accompanies advances in agriculture and iron technology, but predates the formation of major states. 338 Persian eunuch and general Bagoas poisons Ataxerxes III and in 336 Ataxerxes IV. He is then poisoned in turn by Darius III, but too late to save the Achaemenid Empire from dissolution at the hands of Alexander. 330 Alexander the Great proclaims himself emperor of Persia. Not long afterward, he begins donning Persian garb.
E	359 King Philip 11 takes power in the northern Greek state of Macedon. He immediately begins assembling a hardy, well trained army, equipping his infantry with the sarissa, a pike 13 to 21 feet long. 350 A plebeian is elected censor in Rome for the first time. 338 Philip II of Macedon, after two decades of extending his empire, subdues all of Greece and sets his sights on Persia. 336 Alexander the Great, following the assassination of his father, Philip II, inherits his expanding empire at the age of 20. 330s Alexander the Great encourages the building of roads and cities throughout his empire, setting a pattern for the later Roman Empire. 300s Greek farmers grow more barley than wheat, as the yield is greater on poor soil. ca 378 Greek philosopher Plato composes his dialogue, The Republic, in which he elaborates his notion of the ideal state. ca 350 The Apollo Belvedere, attributed to Greek sculptor Leochares, is made. It is widely considered the ideal form off masculine beauty in the ancient Mediterranean world. 347 Coins are introduced Into Rome; soon afterwards, the stores of the Roman Forum are replaced by banks. ca 318 Greek philosopher Aristoxenus of Tarenturn, living in southern Italy, composes his discourse on music entitled Harmomics . ca 350 people In the Spartan city of Lacedaemon direct hot air through pipes underneath their floors, an early form of central heating. 350 Aristotle writes Conceming the Sky in which he correctly supports the theory that the earth is a sphere, and incorrectly supports the theory that the earth is the center of the universe. 312 The first major Roman road, the Via Appia is commissioned by censor Appius Claudius Caecus. It extends 162 miles from Rome to Tarenturn in southeastern Italy. 342 Greek philosopher Aristotle, a disciple of Plato whose writings encompass topics from metaphysics to politics to biology to literature, travels to Macedon to become the tutor of young Alexander the Great. 336 King Philip 11 of Macedon is assassinated at the wedding of his daughter. His plans for an invasion of Persia fall to his son Alexander. 323 Alexander the Great, strategist, leader, and conqueror of a vast empire stretching from mainland Greece to parts of India, falls ill at a feast and dies a week later at the age of 33. Theories of his cause of death range from poisoning to cirrhosis of the liver.
AO	ca 360 Shang Yang, Chinese Legalist and administrator of the state of Qin, grants plots of land to peasants to boost agricultural production. Increased surplus creates enough economic growth to equip the army with iron weapons and to begin conquering rival states. In 338 he is executed, then mutilated, after the death of his patron. 327 Alexander the Great takes his army across the Indus River into northwestern India, where he begins subjecting local rulers. He retreats only when his troops refuse to proceed any farther from home. 327 Alexander the Great's incursion into northwestern India and conquests throughout the Middle East connect the Indian subcontinent to the growing sphere of the Mediterranean basin. Trade will thus be facilitated for centuries to come. ca 330 Confucian thinker Mencius travels extensively through China, extolling the virtues of government through benevolence and respectfulness. Critics deride his teachings as naively optimistic. ca 320 The classic Daoist texts, the Daodejingand the Zhuangzl, are compiled. They advocate following patterns and processes of nature as a guide to human life and social order. ca 315 Mauryan court adviser Kautalya composes his Arthashastra, which serves as a manual for imperial administration. 365 Chinese astronomers discover the existence of Jupiter's moons without the aid of a telescope. 352 The earliest known record of a supernova is made by Chinese astronomers. ca 350 The use of coins appears in China. ca 325 Ambitious upstart Chandragupta Maurya seizes control of the Indian state of Maghada, embarking on an imperial career that will establish the Mauryan dynasty in most of the Indian subcontinent. 321 Chandragupta Maurya pushes the borders of his kingdom into northwestern India where Alexander's withdrawal has left a vacuum of power. In 320 he wrests control of Bactria, modern day Afghanistan, from Alexander's successors.
A	ca 350 The Olmec city of La Venta, located on an island surrounded by marshland, is completely abandoned and no longer serves as a political or cultural center. ca 350 Inhabitants of Nakbe, in modern‑day Guatemala, decorate a monumental platfor with a large bust of a supernatural bird, evidence of the beginnings of the Maya cultural tradition. 300s The Jama Coaque culture of modern‑day coastal Ecuador continues to produce a number of clay figurines often with very well defined features and almost always adorned with headgear and jewelry.
	310 – 230 BCE
MA	305 Seleucus takes the title of king, making Seleucid Asia independent of Greece. In 280, his son Antiochus I takes the titles "great king, king of the world, king of Babylon." ca 300 Ptolemaic rule in Egypt fosters the widespread organization of agriculture and industry and establishes royal monopolies over the textile, salt making, and beer brewing industries. 247 The Parthian satrap in Iran stages a successful revolt against his Seleucid overlord, starting a hundred‑year shift in the balance of power between these two forces in the Middle East. ca 300 Aramaic and Greek are the common languages of newly founded Hellenistic cities in the Middle East. 280 The Alexandria Museum and Libra are founded. These centers of classical learning will foster scientific and literary scholarship for centuries. ca 275 The first five books of the Old Testament are translated from Hebrew to Greek by scholars in Alexandria. 200s The Egyptian cult of Osiris spreads across the Hellenistic world, with its message of eternal salvation. ca 300 Prominent mathematician Euclid, teaching in Alexandria, expounds on the laws of geometry in his Elements. ca 300 Egyptians write using hollow reeds filled with ink, an early form of the fountain pen. 297 The world's first lighthouse, the Pharos of Alexandria, begins to be constructed. The light of a fire at its base is reflected out to sea by bronze mirrors. ca 295 Herophilus, working in Alexandria, practices human dissection, a research technique banned elsewhere. He recognizes the brain as the seat of intelligence. ca 300 Greek colonists bring to the Middle East traditions and laws of the polis. Under Seleucid rule, lands are awarded to cities as well as to individuals; serfs already on the land become free taxpayers, while native citydwellers become citizens. Seleucid rulers also introduce uniform coinage and calendar. ca 300 Peaches, citrons, and cotton move west from Iran, as does the water wheel. ca 280 Alexandria becomes the bureaucratic center of the Ptolemaic empire. Greeks, Macedonians, Phoenicians, Jews, Arabs, and Babylonians migrate through its harbor, which can hold up to 1,200 ships at a time.
E	ca 300 Rome becomes the dominant power on the Italian peninsula. Through the establishment of military colonies and equitable treatment of vanquished states, it secures a wide base of political and military authority. 275 Following Alexander the Great's death, his chief generals carve up his new empire into three large realms: the Seleucid, including most of the former Achaemenid Empire in Persia; the Ptolemaic, including most of Egypt; and the Antigonid, including Greece, Macedon, and nearby islands. 241 The First Punic War ends with Rome wresting control of Sicily from Carthage. ca 300 Greek navigator Pytheas is the first Greek to reach the British Isles and Scandinavia. In his book, On the Ocean, he describes tin mining in modern‑day Cornwall. His description of a land where the sea is solid and the sun never sets in summer is ridiculed in his own day. 250 Romans begin utilizing systematic crop rotation on a two year round. 280 The Colossus of Rhodes is constructed. This bronze statue of the sun god Helios stands 100 feet tall at the mouth of Rhodes harbor as a symbol of freedom of trade. 200s Three schools of philosophical thought arise in Greece‑Epicureanism, which views pleasure as the ultimate good; skepticism, which doubts the possibility of any certain knowledge; and Stoicism, which takes as its goal tranquility of mind by means of a virtuously led life. 300 Babylonian astronomer Berosus living on the Greek island of Cos, develops an early form of the sundial to tell time of day. ca 280 Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos writes On the Size and Distances of the Sun and the Moon, in which he employs Euclid's geometric method to estimate the distance of the sun and the moon from the earth. He also insists that the earth revolves continually around the sun and rotates daily its own axis. ca 260 Greek anatomist Erasistratus of Chios, considered the father of physiology, explains the functions of the heart's valves. 270 Apollonius of Rhodes begins work on his epic Jason and the Argonauts. It will take him 25 years to complete. 264 Originating from an Etruscan funereal tradition, the first gladiatorial games are held in Rome. Along with chariot races, wild animal hunts, and mock naval battles, they will become wildly popular in the Roman world for the next few centuries. 200s Cities on the Greek peninsula, such as Athens and Corinth, benefit tremendously from the increased trade made possible through the expansion of Greek cultural ideas that characterize the Hellenistic era.
AO	ca 300 The Mauryan Empire administers trade, agriculture,, taxes and foreign affairs across northern India from the Indus to the Ganges. 260 Mauryan Emperor Ashoka conquers the Indian state of Kalinga, killing an estimated 100,000 in the fighting and drawing all but the southern tip of India into his empire. Later, he becomes a devout Buddhist, gives up hunting, and founds hospitals and monasteries throughout his country. ca 250 The Yayoi culture, characterized by advanced skills in metallurgy and wet rice cultivation, becomes dominant in Japan. ca 305 Under the patronage of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, the city of Taxila in northwestern India becomes a prominent center of learning and commerce. ca 300 The cultivation of wet rice is introduced into Japan from China. ca 268 Mauryan Emperor Ashoka of India establishes his capital at Pataliputra along the Ganges River. The city is fortified by a moat and a timber wall equipped with 570 towers and 64 gates. It also houses a central treasury system to oversee tax collection. 256 Mauryan emperor Ashoka founds hospitals in India, supplies them with medicines, and encourages the education of women. ca 250 With the sponsorship of Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, Buddhism spreads throughout India and to Bactria and Ceylon, modern day Sri Lanka. Mariner merchants take it along sea routes to Southeast Asia. 200s Trade along the Ganges River flourishes in the hands of private entrepreneurs, This new middle class does not fit readily into the caste system already in place in India, so guilds form that function as sub-castes. ca 300 Indian merchants turn increasingly to sea routes to conduct trade, having mastered the art of sailing the Indian Ocean on its seasonal monsoon winds. ca 255 The idea that feeling a person's pulse is an important aspect of medical diagnosis gains ground in China. ca 250 Mauryan Emperor Ashoka expands on his grandfather's system of roads to encourage overland commerce and builds an extensive irrigation system to encourage agriculture. 249 The earliest known record of Halley's comet is made by Chinese astronomers. ca 300 Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi writes a compendium of Daoist views, extolling the virtues of nature and the oneness of all things. ca 250 Confucian thinker Xunzi advocates ritual propriety, a cornerstone of Confucian views on social order, as a means for the state to create order in human society. ca 250 Chinese Legalist Han Felzi formulates views on the state that will influence Chinese politics for centuries.
A	ca 300 Tikal, a center of Maya culture located in the lowland rain forest of modern day Guatemala, moves from a small farming community to a populous ceremonial complex. Around this time, it begins construction on a number of monumental pyramids and temples. ca 250 The Zapotec population of Monte AlbAn reaches 15,000 and is governed by an identifiable ruling elite. ca 250 Construction begins at the site of Tiahuanaco (Tiwanaku) on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca in the Andes. ca 300 The Anasazi of southwestern North America begin cultivating corn. ca 250 The Palacio de Danzantes in Monte Alb6n demonstrates Olmec influence. Its friezes are believed to be a public declaration of the political and martial power of the city's elite. Many represent scenes of ritual bloodletting. 200s Craftsmen of the La Tolita culture of modern day coastal Ecuador continue to produce a multitude of finely wrought gold pieces that show a skill in casting and overlay unequalled elsewhere in the Americas. ca 250 The Moche culture develops in northern coastal Peru at the same time as the Nazca culture develops in southern coastal Peru. Both are characterized by the high quality of their pottery and weaving. ca 250 Lapis lazuli from the Chilean desert appears in Chavlin de Huantar sites of Peru evidence of an extensive trade network among the Andeans.
	230 – 170 BCE
MA	212 With Rome's encouragement, Numidian chiefs declare war on Carthage, their neighbor to the west. The rebellion is quickly put down by Carthaginian general Hasdrubal. 202 Roman forces under General Scipio Africanus Major defeat the amassed Carthaginian forces under General Hannibal at Zama, in modern day Tunisia. The peace agreement forces Carthage to cede to Rome most of its fleet as well as its holdings in Spain. 203. Masinlissa is made ruler of the newly formed North African kingdom of Numidia. 189 Roman forces defeat Seleucid ruler Antiochus III and establish Roman Asia. ca 230 The Dying Gaul is dedicated. This sculpture may commemorate a victory over the Galatians, a Celtic group pushing into Asia Minor. It represents a great advance in the artistic depiction of the anguish of war.. 196 A description of the coronation of Egyptian Pharaoh Ptolemy V is inscribed three times on the Rosetta Stone, once in Greek, once in Egyptian hieroglyphs, and once in dernotic script. 230 Mathematician Apollonius of Perga, an early contributor to the field of mathematical astronomy, introduces the terms paraboia, ellipse, and hyperbola from his detailed study of the cross sections of a cone. He works out of Alexandria, Egypt. ca 200 The astrolabe is developed in Alexandria. It is used to chart the positions and altitude of the stars. ca 200 Permanent settlement at Jenne‑Jeno (modern‑day Djenne) in the Niger Delta begins the gradual process of urbanism in West Africa. Rice cultivation, trade, and crafts contribute to this process. 182 Hannibal, in exile in Asia Minor, commits suicide rather than submit to the Romans. ca 171 Soldier and conqueror Mithradates I assumes the throne of the Parthian Empire. He will soon rule over lands stretching from India to the Mediterranean.
E	218 Carthaginlan general Hannibal, at the outbreak of the Second Punic War, crosses the Alps into northern Italy with 40,000 men and 37 elephants. His successful invasion threatens Rome. 215 Resentful of Rome's Interference with affairs in Illyria, on the eastern shores of the Adriatic, King Philip V of Macedon sends a war fleet to begin the First Macedonian War, thus occupying Rome on two fronts. 240 Greek scholar of natural history Eratosthenes of Cyrene maps the Nile River valley. 225 The Colossus of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, is toppled by an earthquake. ca 200 The Riace bronzes, incredibly realistic Greek sculptures are lost to sea in the Strait of Messina. They will be recovered in 1972. ca 193 The Aphrodite of Melos, better known to posterity as the Venus de Milo, is produced. Nothing is known of its sculptor. ca 195 Greek scholar Arlstophanes of Byzantium introduces accent marks to Greek writing. ca 230 Greek mathematician and inventor Archemedes, working in Syracusa, Sicily, creates all manner of military instruments using levers and pulleys, comes to an approximation of pi, and finds the ratio between the volume of a cylinder to that of an inscribed sphere, the so called golden ratio. ca 200 The horseshoe is invented by nomads of the Eurasian steppes. This technology soon spreads to the Roman world. ca 200 The Romans invent concrete. 226 A force of Gauls threatens Roman holdings in northern Italy. They are turned away decisively the following year at the Battle of Telamon. ca 200 Lands conquered by Rome largely become property of the wealthy elite, who set up massive, slave‑operated plantations known as latifundia. These plantations prosper at the expense of their smaller neighbors. ca 195 Following military successes on both sides of the Mediterranean, Rome's attitude toward its Italian allies becomes harsher and the political sway of its aristocratic landowners becomes greater.
AO	221 Having subdued rival warring states to his rule, the 13 year old king of Qin proclaims himself the first emperor of a unified China. He takes on a new title, Qin Shihuangdi, which means first emperor of Qin. 207 Following the death of Emperor QIn Shihuangdi, civil insurrection breaks apart the Qin dynasty. Though the dynasty lasts only:14 years, the tradition of centralized imperial rule will last for centuries. 206 Methodical and determined military commander Liu Bang manages to restore order to China and positions himself at the head of the new Han dynasty. ca 220 Chinese Emperor Qin Shihuangdi divides his kingdom into 36 administrative units, each governed by a civil administrator or a military commander, and each checked on by an imperial inspector. ca 206 The Man dynasty sets up its capital in Chang'an, near modern day Xi'an. This cosmopolitan city will serve as an important cultural center for much of Chinese history. ca 185 The Mauryan Empire of India dissipates as its expenditures outweigh its revenues. Large regional kingdoms control India for the next five centuries. ca 200 The Classic of Filial Piety is composed. It encourages obedience and respect for elders and authorities. ca 200 The Bhagavad Oita, or Song of God, a sacred Hindu text, is further refined. It ruminates on the divine in the form of a dialogue between a warrior prince and his charioteer. ca 220 Chinese Emperor Qin Shlhuangdl begins construction on a mausoleum spanning 20 square miles and adorned with a pearl inlaid map of the sky, rivers of flowing mercury, and an army of terra cotta soldiers. ca 220 Emperor Qin uses a vast force of slave labor to build a system of roads, bridges, and canals across China. He also consolidates the Great Wall. ca 200 The Chinese develop coal as a fuel. ca 190 Chinese mathematicians begin expressing magnitude using powers of ten and early forms of scientific notation. 210 Obsessed with Immortality, Chinese Emperor Qin Shihuangdi dies while journeying in search of an elixir of life. His many reforms include standardizing laws, writing, currency, weights, measures, and even the width of roads. 206 First Han Emperor Liu Bang synthesizes the decentralization of the Zhou dynasty with the tight centralization of the Qin dynasty to create a system that will stay in place for the first 50 years of Han rule. ca 200 The Xiongnu people of Central Asia form a wide‑reaching federation under the ruler known as Maodun.
A	ca 200 Teotlhuacan, the "city of the gods," near modern day Mexico City, begins extending its influence over nearby areas, most likely by means of military force. ca 200 The Nazca lines begin to appear in the arid deserts of southern coastal Peru. Giant ground markings created by removing dark, oxidized rocks from the desert surface, some are animal figures, others straight lines or trapezoids emanating from ray centers. Ca 200 The Nazca people of southern coastal Peru begin constructing a huge network of underground irrigation channels, called puquios, many of which are still in working order. They enable the Nazca to make their desert environment arable and may have a connection with the Nazca lines. ca 200 Inhabitants of modern day Ecuador and Peru develop clay furnaces used to melt gold and silver. ca 200 Builders of the Zapotec city of Monte AlbAn create central plazas surrounded by public and religious structures.
	170 – 100 BCE
MA	161 Judah Maccabee establishes diplomatic relations with Rome after the Hasmonean Revolt, spurred by the Seleucids' dedication of the temple to Zeus. 150 The city of Carthage, following incursions by Numidian King Masinissa, violates the terms of peace of the Second Punic War and provides Rome an impetus to begin the Third Punic War in 146. Roman forces led by consul Scipio Aemilianus take the city, raze it, evict the inhabitants, and salt the surrounding earth to hinder agriculture. 141 Parthian ruler Mithradates I enters the royal city of Seleucia in Mesopotamia and is recognized as king. ca 200400 Dry episodes In the Sahel, a semi-arid region of West Africa, shift the climate as well as the people that inhabit the area. 129 Cteslphon, on the Tigris River, is selected as the capital of the Parthian Empire. 125 A plague of locusts afflicts Roman areas in northern Africa, raising the price of grain. 164 Judah Maccabee reclaims the Jerusale temple for Jewish worship, inaugurating the feast of Hanukkah. ca .150 Jewish philosopher Aristobolus of Paneas derives Greek philosophy from the wisdom of Moses. 100s Parthians officially sanction worship of the god Mithra, after whom Mithradate is named. ca 140 Greek philosopher Crates of Mallus, living and working in Asia Minor, develops the first known globe. 100s Ptolemaic mariners from Egypt learn from Indian and Arab seamen the art of using the Indian Ocean utilizing its monsoon winds, thus enabling them to safely sail trade routes between India and the Mediterranean. The southwestern wind of summer is named Hippalus, after the merchant who success fully sailed it from the Gulf of Aden to the Indian peninsula. ca 1.04 John Hyrcanus, nephew of Judah Maccabee, temporarily expands Judaea south to Negev and north to Galilee and becomes a Seleucid vassal. Popular appeals against his Hellenizing policies bring in the Romans, who annex the Judaean state in 63. 100s Women are employed by imperial and temple workshops in urban centers throughout the Parthian Empire. They weave textiles in exchange for rations of grain, wine, or beer. 100s Bactria, bordered to the east by India, imports Chinese goods such as textiles and bamboo by way of Bengal in southwest China‑a precursor to the Silk Road.
E	146 Rome destroys Carthage and establishes the province of Africa. Rome is now the dominant political and economic force in the Mediterranean. 133 Roman tribune Tiberius Gracchus sponsors a law limiting the power and estates of large landowners. He is assassinated a year later. 123 Roman tribune Galus Gracchus, Tiberius's brother, pushes for land reform and wider distribution of Roman citizenship. Pursued by political enemies, he commits suicide two years later. 122 Mount Etna on the island of Sicily erupts. 166 Latin comic playwright Terence produces his first play The Girl from Andros. 100s Romans frequently pay professional sorcerers to write curse tablets calling for divine actions against their rivals in love or business. ca 170 The first paved streets in the world appear in Rome 144 Rome's highest and longest aqueduct, the Aqua Marcia, is built. 142 Rome's first stone bridge, the Pons Aemillus, is completed. 129 Greek scientist and astronomer Hipparchus of Bithynia creates the earliest known catalog of stars, using an early form of the astrolabe at his observatory on the Greek island of Rhodes. He documents the brightness and position of nearly 850 stars. 152 Greek athlete Leonidas of Rhodes wins three running events for the fourth straight time at the Olympic Games. ca 115 Despite the efforts of the Gracchl brothers, power and money in Rome remain centered in the hands of a small group of privileged elite. Small farmers continue to constitute the bulk of the Roman army. 107 Galus Marius is elected consul in Rome. In order to engage in the ongoing war with Numidian King Jugurtha, Marius recruits an army of landless farmers and urban workers.
AO	141 Han Wudl, the "martial emperor" of the Han dynasty in China, begins his 54 year long reign. Through Legalist principles and an enormous bureaucracy, he seeks to augment the power and sway of the central government. He levies large taxes and establishes imperial monopolies on essential goods. 136 Chinese Emperor Han Wudl declares Confucianism the state ideology. 130s With the Invasion by China into northern Vietnam and Korea comes the import of Confucianist principles and a Chinese form of government. ca 140 Sericulture, the manufacture of silk, spreads from its point of origin in the Yellow River Valley to more southern portions of China and further west to India, where it becomes a highly prized commodity, as in Persia, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire. 124 Emperor Han Wudi establishes an imperial university to stock his bureaucracy with educated office holders. Confucian classics are used as the basis of the curriculum, ensuring Confucianism's place in Chinese society.. 113 Liu Sheng, a prince of the Han dynasty in China, dies. A member of the wealthiest class of society, he and his wife are buried in full jade suits threaded with two and a half pounds of gold wire. ca 109 Chinese historian Sima Qlan takes the reins from his father on a project to document the entire history of China. His Records of the Historian is a valuable resource to this day. ca 165 The earliest known record of sunspots is made by Chinese astronomers. 121 A Chinese Inventor develops the magic lantern, an early kind of image projector. 100s Iron tools, such as shovels, picks, hoes and sickles, enter into much more wide spread use in China under the Han dynasty. The resulting agricultural surplus allows for specialized the manufacture of other crafts. 100s Suits of Iron armor are developed by Chinese craftsmen and employed with great success. ca 150 Seafaring Austronesians arrive from Samoa to the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti. 139 Han Wudl sends his envoy Zhang Qian on a 12 year expedition to explore the "far West." He engages in diplomatic and cultural exchange with the Xiongnu, Tibetan, and other Central Asian peoples. 106 Chinese historian and author Ban Zhao, composes her Admonitions for Women, claiming fidelity and devotion to husbands as the essential feminine virtue. It goes on to influence social mores in China for millennia.
A	100s The Street of the Dead, the main thoroughfare of Teotihuacan, is lined with about .100 palaces that house priests and dignitaries. The working populace lives outside of the city. 100s Wind Instruments‑such as flutes and panpipes made of bone, clay, or hollow cane - are used for ceremonial and entertainment purposes by cultures throughout the Andean regions of South America. 100s Construction begins on the Pyramid of Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon at the growing urban complex of Teotihuacan in the northeast portion of the Valley of Mexico.
	100 – 40 BCE
MA	83 The remainder of the deteriorating Seleucid Empire, a holdover from the conquests of Alexander the Great, is conquered by Roman forces. This brings Syria and portions of Asia Minor into Rome's growing dominion. 53 The Battle of Carrhae, during which the Parthian cavalry routs a Roman army in Mesopotamia, prevents the Romans from moving farther east. 51 Cleopatra comes to the throne in Egypt. In 48 she meets Julius Caesar, marries him, and has his son; later she marries Marc Antony after having twins by him. ca 100 Bactrians write the local Iranian language with Greek characters, mint gold coins, propagate Buddhism, and develop a syncretic style of art. 63 The Jewish state shrinks when Roman general Pompey conquers Palestine and storms Jerusalem. ca 100 The art of glassblowing is refined to a highly advanced level by Syrian craftsmen
E	87 Gallus Marius, in exile since his political rival, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, took power following the Social War, marches on Rome. He places the city under military occupation and begins a massacre of his political enemies. 83 Following Marius's death, Sulla marches on Rome and begins his own purging of political enemies. In short time, he brings about the execution of nearly 10,000 Romans. 49 Political maneuvers in Rome come to a head when Julius Caesar marches his troops across the Rubicon River into Italy. By 46 B.C.E., he is named dictator for life. By 44, he is assassinated by a group of senators. 58 Galus Julius Caesar begins his conquests of Gaul, modern day France. By the end of the decade, he brings a large number of these Celtic groups into the growing sphere of the Roman world. Through these victories and his subsequent writings, On The Gallic War, he also gains greater popular support in Rome. 70s‑40s The orations of Roman rhetorician Cicero, lauded for his unique style, firmly establish Stoicism in the Roman psyche, ca 60 Latin poet Catullus composes his Love Poems to Lesbia. 42 Caesar is recognized by the Roman state as a god, initiating the imperial cult that will characterize Roman society for centuries. ca 100 Syrian born philosopher Poseidonius working from Rhodes, discover the correlation of tides to the lunar cycle. ca 100 Following it’s refinement in Syria, glass is used in the windows of wealthy Romans. ca 90 Roman writer and Scholar Marcus Terentius Varro proposes the idea that invisible particles which enter the body through the nose and mouth can cause illness and disease. This is the first known postulation of germ theory. ca 90 The earliest known British coins are used. 88 The Social War In Italy ends with Rome granting citizenship to allies on the peninsula. 73 Escaped slave Spartacus leads a rebel army in Italy that requires eight Roman legions to quell. 46 As dictator, Julius Caesar centralizes control of the Roman army, extends citizenship to the provinces, begins ambitious building projects to employ the urban poor, and reworks the Roman calendar.
AO	81 "Debates on Salt and Iron" are held at the Han capital of Chang'an. Confucian arguments to limit government intervention in the economy prevail. ca 100 Sugar cane is developed and cultivated based on wild varieties found in the East Indies. ca:1.00 Chinese Emperor Man Wudl establishes agricultural communities in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Interaction with the Parthians and Bactrians farther to the west is facilitated, and the oasis city of Dunhuang becomes a major station along the Silk Road. ca:100 Towns along the Silk Road In Central Asia, such as Merv, Bukhara Samarkand, Kashgar, and others, which are economically dependent on trade, allow merchants to build Buddhist monasteries and invite monks into their midst. The populace of these towns is soon largely Buddhist. ca 100 Hindu scholars continue to revise and put into writing the two great epic oral poems of India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayan They infuse these reworkings with Hindu theology and ethical teachings. ca 100 The use of e numbers becomes standard for Chinese mathematicians. ca 100 Ice Is used in China for refrigeration. ca 100 In order to finance his military expeditions and other undertakings, Chinese Emperor Han Wudi raises taxes and confiscates property from wealthy landowners on oftentimes erroneous charges. 87 Emperor Han Wudl dies. Though his power is severely weakened by the end of his reign, at its height Han China reaches as far as modern day Kyrgyzstan in the West and the Korean peninsula in the East.
A	ca 100 The population of Teotlhuacan reaches approximately 10,000. ca 100 The cocoa plant, from which chocolate is made, is cultivated in equatorial regions of South America. ca 50 A massive lava flow covers the town of Cuicuilco and much of its surrounding farmland in the southwestern portion of the Mexican basin. Refugees flock to nearby Teotihuacan, increasing the extent of the city's regional influence. ca 100 The Moche culture of northern coastal Peru begins constructing pyramid temples made of mud brick. ca 100 Cahuachi, the major ceremonial center of the Nazca culture, is constructed in southern Peru. With a very small permanent population, it most likely serves as a pilgrimage shrine to host large numbers only for ceremonial events. ca 100 The moche culture of northern coastal Peru uses bronze to make tools and weapons. ca 50 The inhabitants of Cerros, on Cheturnal Bay of the Yucat6n Peninsula, raze portions of their village to the ground in order to build a civic center dominated by a small pyramid. It is decorated with immense countenances of the sun and Venus.
	40 BCE – 100 CE
MA	66 After Greeks in Jerusalem desecrate a synagogue as Roman troops look on, the first Jewish‑Roman War begins, with the Jewish high priest leading a successful attack on the Roman garrison. In the end, the skirmish results in the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by Roman troops under Vespasian. 72‑73 Roman forces put an end to the Great Jewish Revolt in Judaea by sieging and overcoming the remaining holdouts of Jewish rebels, some of whom are in the hilltop fortress known as Masada. 65 An earthquake destroys the Phrygian city of Laodicea in Asia Minor. ca 50 Christian convert turned missionary Paul of Tarsus begins efforts to bring non Jews into the Christian community. He travels throughout the eastern Roman Empire, corresponding with converts in epistles on matters of faith ca 70 Work on the Gospels, accounts of Jesus of Nazareth's life and teachings, is undertaken by members of the new Christian faith. ca 85 Christians are expelled from the Jewish faith 46-47 The Mesopotamian calendar of readjusted, only a month off after 800 years. ca 62 Mathematician and inventor Heron of Alexandria, stressing practicality over pure theory describes mechanical labor saving devices such as a steam engine, a water clock, a water fountain, and an odometer. A world highly dependent on slave labor pays him little heed. 90s Remarkably well‑wrought tombs and temples are hewn directly into the sandstone cliffs near the city of Petra, the capital of the kindom of Nabataea in modern‑day Jordan, whose wealth derives from the spice trade. 1st centuries C.E. The Silk Road from China passes through Parthian territory, enriching the treasury and bringing new prosperity to war torn Mesopotamia. ca 50 The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greek navigational document, describes trading in the Red Sea and along the East African coast to India. ca 50 Romans displace Arabs in the rich spice trade of the Red Sea.
E	ca 60 Boudicca, queen of the Celtic Iceni tribe in Britain, is defeated by Roman forces. The Romans later reduce the political and legal status of Celtic women. 69 Following Emperor Nero's forced suicide and the end of the Julio‑Claudian line of succession, generals across the Roman Empire vie for the imperial title. At the end of the "year of the four emperors " Vespasian, a commander fresh conquests in Judaea, establishes the Flavian dynasty. 64 Fire destroys half of Rome. Emperor Nero blames the Christian community; meanwhile, he undertakes an opulent imperial building project, his Golden House, on the ashes. 79 Mount Vesuvius erupts, burying the nearby cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae under many feet of ash and pumice. 77 Roman jack‑of‑all‑trades Pliny the Elder completes his Natural History, a compilation of writings and remarks that runs of observable phenomena. 92 Roman Emperor Domitlan begins the wide spread execution of Christians for not adhering to the imperial cult. ca 70 Roman Emperor Vespasian begins consuction of the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum, over the top of Nero’s former Golden House. With a spectator capacity, it is equipped with underground passageways and trap doors. It can even be flooded to host mock naval battles. ca 60 Greek physician Pedanios Dloscurldes writes his Medicinal Materials, a catalog of over plants and their medicinal effects. ca 80 An astronomical calculator incorporating 31 interlocking wheels is produced on the Greek island of Antikythera. 40s Roman Emperor Claudius creates an imperial bureaucracy of professional administrators, composed largely of former slaves. 80 An epidemic of anthrax runs through the Roman Empire, killing thousands of animals and people and reaching the western border of the Han empire in China. ca 90 Stoic philosopher and former slave Epictetus studies and lectures among Rome's intellectual elite. His achievement demonstrates the social opportunities available to urban slaves of the Roman empire.
AO	ca 60 Han forces under General Ban Chao reestablish Chinese control of Central Asia from the nomadic Xiongnu tribes, a pattern that is often repeated during the Han dynasty. ca 50 A number of Roman trading posts are established along the Indian coast. From these settlements, Indian textiles are presumably prepared to Roman specifications for export. 92 A cycle of floods and droughts in China is worsened by plagues of locusts. ca 50 Sanskrit becomes the mode of written communication in Southeast Asia, as rulers begin to lead based on an Indian model. 50 Christian apostle and missionary Thomas after some initial success converting Indians to Christianity, is martyred for attempting to convert King Gondophernes of Gandhara in northwestern India. 58 Buddhism is introduced to China by Han Emperor Ming Ti. Initially, it garners only luke warm interest there. 68 The White Horse Temple, one of the earliest Buddhist temples in China, is built just outside the new Han capital at Luoyangg 1st centuries C.E. Indian textiles, Chinese silk, Afghan turquoise, and southeast Asian spices are traded along the Silk Road for Roman gold and silver. 92 Ban Gu, author of the History of the Han, dies. His sister, Ban Zhao, completes the work.
A	ca 50 The population of the Mexican Basin decreases significantly except in Teotihuacan, near modern day Mexico City, which grows three times larger. ca 50 The ceremonial center of Teotlhuacan covers 12 square miles and contains 600 pyramid temples. ca 50 Hopewell peoples of eastern North America hone their artistic style. As they expand their rituals associated with burial, many finely produced crafts go to the graves of important persons. ca 50 The Street of the Dead, Teotlhuacan's avenue, stretches two miles in length 150 feet in width. ca 50 The Pyramid of the Sun In Teotlhuacan 215 feet tall and measures 500,000 feet at its base. It is one of the structures of its type found in the m Hemisphere. ca 50 Most of Teotihuacan's inhabitants, about a third of whom do not farm, live near the ceremonial complex within structured residential grid patterns.
	100 – 170 CE
MA	107 Petra, in modern day Jordan, is conquered and subsumed into the Roman Empire. 114 Roman Emperor Trajan conquers Armenia and Mesopotamia. 162‑66 Warfare is renewed between Romans and Persians over control of Armenia. The result is Persian losses. 151 Egyptian geographer Claudius Ptolemy in his Geography sets out the whole of the world as it is known to the Romans. It stretches from modern day Iceland to Sri Lanka, with broad swaths of unknown lands to the east and south. 132‑35 Bar Kochba leads a revolt against Rome, the last of a series of uprisings that lead to the persecution and expulsion of Jews from Palestine. This also leads to the rise of rabbis‑scholars who begin compilation of the Mishnah, a codification of traditional Jewish oral law ca 150 The rise of Gnostic sects inspires the Christian community to push for the canonization of scriptures. ca 100 Heron of Alexandria sets up a series of gears to perform simple calculations, a kind of computer that is ages ahead of it’s time. ca 100 Parthians develop the liwan, a large central arch, and a dome supported on squinches, both of which become characteristic forms of Islamic architecture. 152 Farmers in Egypt revolt, affecting a grain shortage in Rome. 144‑173 Under Kanishka, the Kushans of Central Asia become middlemen in the silk trade. Kanishka, a convert to Buddhism, is instrumental in spreading Buddhism to the West as well as north into Central Asia. The Kushans develop Gandharan art, a merger of Greek and Indian styles that is sometimes called Greco‑Buddhist.
E	101 Roman Emperor Trajan further extends the boundaries of the Roman Empire beyond the Danube River into Dacia. 161 Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor of Rome following the death of his adoptive father Antoninus Pius. Though he espouses the Stoic philosophy throughout his emperorship, he is almost constantly at war. ca 100 Roman historian Tacitus writes a history of Rome sharply critical of the emperors following Augustus. ca 3.00 Eastern cults, such as those of Mithra and Isis, spread in Rome. They become popular even though the authorities attempt to suppress them. ca 150 Greek philosopher and theologian Justin Martyr reconciles Platonic philosophy with Christian teachings and rejects Greek mythology. ca 100 Romans expand their system of roads so they can supply their border forts and move troops more efficiently. ca 100 Mines In Britain supply the Roman Empire with lead and tin. ca 100 Slaves account for as much as a third of the population of the Roman empire. ca 100 Men from the provinces join the Roman army in order to gain citizenship and learn a trade. ca 100 Successful chariot drivers become popular heroes in Rome. ca 150 Goths arrive on the Danubian frontier of the Roman Empire. Although they at first raid the empire heavily, forcing Roman forces to eventually abandon Dacia, they also adopt many Roman laws and customs.
AO	100s Large landowners gain an upper hand in the government of Han dynasty China. They evade taxes and burden peasants with the costs of governance, even raising private armies to enforce their interests. 153 Powerful earthquakes and plagues of locusts afflict areas of China. ca 100 Less expensive and easier to write on than silk, paper becomes the main medium of written communication in China. The cost of education is dramatically lowered and a high level of cultural sophistication results. 147 A Parthlan monk, An Shigao, arrives in Luoyang and begins the first translations of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese. He is instrumental in the establishment of Buddhism in China. 105 Chinese court official Cal Lun describes the modern method of making paper from hemp, bark, or bamboo pulp. Some sources trace its invention back to 150 B.C.E. 132 The seismograph and armillary sphere are developed by Zhang Heng, an astronomer of Han, China. 100s Malay people of Southeast Asia participate in the widespread trade network made possible by classical empires. Due to their seafaring way of life, Malay culture expands throughout the Malay peninsula and neighboring islands.
A	ca 100 The Moche culture of northern coastal Peru further extends its influence over neighboring peoples. It serves as the political nerve center of about 2,500 square miles of river valleys. ca 100 Competition among peoples in what is now California divides the region into distinct political territories, each with leaders who hold considerable sway over the social life of their communities, trade and diplomatic exchange, and matters of war. ca 100 Hopewell peoples of eastern North America engage in trade that gathers materials from regions as distant as the Rocky Mountains, the Great Lakes, and the Appalachians. 100s Moche artisans continue to create a great variety of ornate ceramics, taking as their subjects the rulers of the day as well as mythological, floral, erotic, and everyday motifs. ca 100 Mocha culture continues to be characterized not only by a high level of agricultural knowledge, but also by advanced metalworking. Artisans master the technique of inlaying turquoise designs on gold plaques. ca 100 The Moche begin construction on Huan Cao Viejo, a massive ceremonial complex consisting of a six tiered pyramidal structure and a large plaza. It is adorned with ornately detailed and colorful friezes. ca 100 The Moche begin construction of the Huaca del Sol, or Pyramid of the Sun, which serves as either a palace or a mausoleum and is the largest structure of its day in the Americas. ca 100 Evidence of the Adena culture of eastern North America gradually dwindles and vanishes, due to either their assimilation into the contemporaneous Hopewell culture or a mass migration. ca 100 Early Anasazi people settle into the four corners region of southwestern North America. They weave baskets and sandals for everyday use and supplement hunting and gathering with the cultivation of corn and pumpkins.
	170 – 230 CE
MA	ca 200 The Kingdom of Axum, centered in Ethiopia, grows into the largest market for foreign goods in sub‑Saharan Africa. It dominates commerce on the African coast of the Red Sea and trades with Alexandria and beyond. 224 Already weakened by internal rebellion, the Parthian Empire is brought down by the Sassanids of Persia. They will rule Mesopotamia from their capital at Ctesiphon, on the Tigris River near modern day Baghdad, for the next 400 years. ca 200 Bantu‑speaking farmers from West Africa migrate into much of southern Africa, bringing with them advanced agriculture, herding, and iron working. ca 185 The New Testament is canonized under the leadership of Irenaeus, and an early Christian creed, called the rule of faith, is promulgated. Tertullian of Africa writes an apologia for the faith; Clement and Origen, bishops of Alexandria, write theological works "Acts of the martyrs" also proliferate. 226 The first king of the Sassanid Empire In Persia, King Ardashir I, makes Zoroastriani the state religion. Zoroastrian priests, known as magi, begin to compile the remnants of their scriptures, previously transmitted only orally, into a single volume of five parts, the Avesta. New adherents flock to the religion. ca 224 The cultivation of eastern crops such as rice, sugarcane, and eggplant is introduced into Iran by merchants of the newly formed Sassanid Empire, who trade extensively with peoples to both the East ca 200 The Nolk culture of West Africa, modern day Nigeria, fades from the historical record. The clay figures it produced are some of the earliest examples of stylized sculpture in sub Saharan Africa.
E	203 Vibea Perpetua a young Roman woman, writes an account of her imprisonment for being a Christian. She is later martyred. Ca 200 Cologne and Lyon become the most important glassmaking centers in the Roman empire. CA 203 TheArch of Septimius Severus, still standing at the east end of the Roman Forum, is dedicated. Its reliefs depict scenes from Severus's campaigns in Mesopotamia. 217 The Immense baths of Caracalla in Rome are completed. Equipped with an Olympic sized swimming pool room, a cold and hot pool and numerous exercise courts, it can accommodate up to 10,000 people at once. 180 The population of the Roman Empire declines significantly following a 15‑year outbreak of smallpox that even claims Emperor Marcus Aurelius. This not only decreases trade, but also contracts the empire's economy into more regionalized markets. 201 Greek physician Galen dies at the age of 71. In his lifetime he was a prolific thinker and writer, perhaps even developing an early form of brain surgery. 229 Historian Dio, Cassius retires from politics to finish his History of Rome, an effort comprising 80 books, many of which are still in existence.
AO	184 The Yellow Turban uprising erupts in eastern China. Led by Daoist leader Zhang Jiao, this peasant rebellion contributes to the weakening state of the Later Han dynasty, requiring a huge army and great expense to suppress. 220 After the collapse of the Later Han dynasty, China is divided among three territorial states: Wei in the north, Wu in the southeast, and Shu in the southwest. This is known as the Three Kingdoms period. ca 200 Silkworms from China are introduced into Korea and Japan, stimulating the textile industry in both of these countries. ca 215 Trade between the Asian world and the Roman Empire is in severe decline. 175 Confucian classics are inscribed on stone stelae at the Imperial Academy in the Han capital of Luoyang. ca 220 With the dissolution of the Han dynasty, interest in its state ideology, Confucianism, begins to wane. 208 General Cao Cao, who has spent the past decade attempting to keep the Han dynasty from falling apart at the hands of imperial usurper Dong Zhuo, is appointed prime minister of the state of Wei in northern China. He will spend the remainder of his life consolidating power there. 220 Cao, Pi, son of General Cao, Cao, is crowned the first emperor of the Wei dynasty in northern China.
A	ca 200 The monumental architecture of Teotihuacan includes the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, Quetzalcoatl. It is one of the architectural masterpieces of Mesoamerica. Ca 200 Stone walled compounds begin to replace the previous, less substantial mud brick buildings of the city of Teotihuacan in the Mexican basin. Ca 200 The Hohokam people develop dry farming techniques and build an extensive irrigation system to harvest squash, beans, and com twice a year in the harsh, semiarid environment around the Phoenix basin, in today’s Arizona ca 200 The Maya city of Copin is founded in Honduras. ca 200 Peoples of coastal California develop advanced fishing skills to extract food from the abundant marine supply. They also engage in long distance trade that spreads seashells throughout the region.
	230 – 310 CE
MA	ca 260 The Sassanid Empire under Shapur I defeats several Roman armies, ravages Syria, and captures Roman Emperor Valerian. 272 Romans capture Palmyra in south central Syria and its queen, Zenobia. ca 299 A treaty is struck between Persia and Rome, bringing peace to their frontier. Romans build forts and roads for the frontier defense system; Sassanians establish buffer states and turn their armies north to the Caucasus and Central Asia. Greek culture flourishes in Iran for the last time. 256 An epidemic ravages Alexandria. In its wake, many survivors are drawn into the Christian church. ca 300 Despite intensive, yet sporadic, imperial persecutions, Christian communities flourish in the Middle East and North Africa, as well as in even more distant locales. ca 230 Gregory the Wonderworker makes many Christian converts in central Anatolia ca 250 The prophet Man! preaches a new ascetic religion that blends elements of Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism into a cosmopolitan message. 286 Christian monk Anthony of Egypt wanders into the desert, where he remains for 20 years in solitude and austerity. He is widely considered the founder of Christian monasticism. 200s The Mint of coins is begun in the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. ca 260 Roman soldiers captured in Antioch by the Sassanid forces of Shapur I are moved to Iran, where their advanced technical skills are used to advantage in building the city of Gondeshapur and a dam at Shushtar, named the Dam of Caesar. Other captives start Christian communities in Iran. 270 Plotinus dies, having founded the school of Neoplatonism, which dominates philosophical thinking for centuries and affects Christian and, to a lesser degree, Islamic theological thought
E	235‑284 Twenty six claimants to the imperial throne of Rome successively seize power, hold it briefly, and then die violently either at the hands of rivals or their own troops. 286 Roman Emperor Diocletian splits his empire into two administrative units. He rules the eastern half from Nicomedia in Asia Minor and appoints his soldier Maximian to rule as co emperor from Milan in northern Italy. 293 Roman Emperor Diocletian sets up the tetrarchy, a system of deputy emperorship with an Augustus ruling in either half of the Roman Empire and a Caesar assigned to him as collaborator and successor. ca 265 A five year epidemic of plague, likely transmitted via Silk Road, afflicts Rome and much of its empire. 275 Denis, patron saint of France and reputedly first bishop of Paris, arrives in Gaul in attempt to convert the region to Christianity. 303 Roman Empeor Diocletian issues four edicts of non toleration of Christianity. Thus begins the most severe period of Christian martyrdom. 271 Construction of Emperor Aurelian's defensive wall is undertaken in Rome. This massive barricade, 12 miles long and 12 feet thick is representative of the walls being built around cities throughout the Roman empire, a trend that continues well into the Middle Ages. 259 A first wave of barbarian incursions into the Roman Empire occurs as Germanic tribes such as the Burgundians and the Alemans sweep into the regions of Romanized Gaul. 274 Emperor Aurelian reinstitutes paganism in Rome, building a temple to Helios, the unconquered Sun. 305 Following Diocletian's retirement from politics and his own imperial post, the tetrarchy he established to govern the far flung Roman Empire devolves into a number of factions vying for sole control, and civil war ensues.
AO	ca 230 Chinese historical accounts describe a female ruler named Himiko, or "sun princess," in Archaic Japan who wielded both political and religious authority, lending credence to the idea that early Japanese society may have been matriarchal. 243 An embassy from the Funan kingdom of Southeast Asia, an important trading partner of the Chinese, arrives at the southern Chinese court in Nanjing. 265 Chinese geographer Pei Xiu produces a large and detailed map of China during the period of the Three Kingdoms. He is the first to use a system of north south and east west parallels. 200s Shinto, the name given to the indigenous religion of Japan, focuses on the worship of kami, deities of nature and anthropomorphic gods and goddesses. 200s Daoism gains more adherents in China than ever before, thanks in part to less competition from Confucianism and an ideology that seeks inner peace in a confusing world. 200s Buddhism spreads from towns along Silk Road to the nomads of Central Asia. 299 A manual on astrology is composed by Indian scholar Sphujidhvaja. It is based on translations of Greek originals. 297 Chinese military commander, interred in a tomb of this date, wears to the afterlife a belt bedecked with ornaments of aluminum. This metal is not isolated from its natural compounds by Western scientists until 1825. ca 250 Chinese and Tibetan sources make the first known references to the game of polo. ca 300 The Tomb culture of Japan, in which leaders are buried in elaborate sepulchres with clay figurines, flourishes. ca 300 Austronesian mariners establish colonies on the Hawaiian Islands.
A	ca 250 The Maya societies in the southern lowlands of the Yucatan Peninsula enter into what is considered their Classic period, characterized by divine kings ruling over powerful city‑states that conduct their own affairs and carry out their own trade. 200s A series of droughts afflicts coastal regions of modern day California and continues for centuries. 200s Peoples of California plant oak trees to produce acorn crops and ensure a stable supply of food. To protect their stands of oak, they use fire to remove competing plant life and harmful insects and parasites. ca 250 Mogellon farmers of southwestern North America and northern portions of Mexico adopt irrigation techniques of the desert and grow chapalote corn, a strain that has greater volume than other varieties. ca 300 The Maya develop an architectural arch that employs levels of overlapping stones built into massive walls, instead of a single keystone, to provide the necessary support. ca 250 The inhabitants of Becan, on the Yucatan Peninsula, build a defensive moat around their settlement, evidence of the large role warfare played in Maya civilization. ca 300 A group of Maya people settle Jaina, an island off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. This small but busy trading post will become well known for its immense cemetery and an estimated 20,000 burials. ca 300 Anasazi patterns of life become widespread in the San Juan Basin, on the Colorado Plateau, and in northern regions of modern‑day New Mexico.
	310 – 370 CE
MA	300s The Hephthalites, a nomadic people from northern China also known as the White Huns, take the state of Bactria, centered in modern day Afghanistan, from which they prepare to mount an offensive into India. ca 350 The Ethiopian kingdom of Axum invades and brings about the fall of the kingdoms of Meroe in Sudan and Saba in the southwestern Arabian Peninsula. 300s The kingdom of Axum erects immense monolithic black granite obelisks, perhaps in memorial to deceased kings and queens. The largest one weighs approximately five tons and stands taller than even the largest Egyptian obelisk. 331 Axumite King Ezana is converted to Christianity by the Syrian monk Frumentius. During Ezana's reign, the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum reaches its height, extending its borders west into modern day Sudan and east into the southern Arabian Peninsula. 300s The kingdom of Axum erects immense monolithic black granite obelisks, perhaps in memorial to deceased kings and queens. The largest one weighs approximately five tons and stands taller than even the largest Egyptian obelisk. 331 Axumite King Ezana is converted to Christianity by the Syrian monk Frumentius. During Ezana's reign, the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum reaches its height, extending its borders west into modern day Sudan and east into the southern Arabian Peninsula.
E	312 Roman general Constantine I marches on Rome and at the Battle of Milvian Bridge usurps the imperial title from the last fully pagan emperor, his brother‑in‑law Maxentius. 358 After continued raids and increasing pressure on Its borders, the Roman Empire is compelled to abandon the region of modern day Belgium to the Franks. 330 Constantine I dedicates the ancient Greek city of Byzantium as his new capital. Fashioning it a "new Rome," he renames it Constantinople. It is located on the European side of the Sea of Marmora, the entrance to the Black Sea. 313 The Edict of Milan is issued by eastern Roman Emperors Constantine and Licinius, confirming official toleration by the Roman Empire of Christianity and all other religion ca 350 Following its imperial sanction, the Christian Church organizes itself into a top to bottom hierarchy of ranking officials. Ca 313 Roman Emperor Constantine I under takes construction on a number of impressively ornate basilicas in Rome, including the Bacilica of St. Peter and of St. Paul. 361 The city of Constantinople passes regulations requiring physicians to receive a license in order to practice. ca 320 The manufacture of textiles is begun in Britain for export to the rest of the Roman Empire. 325 Roman Emperor Constantine I embraces Christianity and institutionalizes the faith throughout the Roman Empire. To settle conflicts regarding church doctrine, he calls bishops to the first ecumenical council, located at Nicaea near Constantinople. At this council, the Nicene Creed is developed, specifying the doctrinal relationship of Jesus to God. ca 365 Martin of Tours, a former Roman soldier, founds the first monastery in Gaul, dedicated to spreading Christianity to rural areas .
AO	300s Chandra Gupta and his son Samudra expand dominion throughout most of India through alliances and military force. They create the first centrally administered empire in India since the Mauryan, yet allow local governments to remain intact. 313 The Chinese colony of Lo4ang in the northwestern portion of the Korean peninsula is retaken by Korean forces. 32.6 The Xiongnu army sacks Chang'an, bringing an end to the western Jin dynasty. ca 350 From humble beginnings, the Yamato culture extends its base of power throughout the Japanese archipelago and into Korea. 300s Buddhism gains a firm foothold in China due to efforts by Indian missionaries and an influx of Central Asian nomads. 3:10 Buddhist monk Fotudeng arrives in Chang'an. ca 360 A Buddhist monastery is founded at Nalanda in the Ganges River Valley near the former Mauryan capital of Pataliputra, also renowned as an educational center. Pilgrim and students alike converge here to study Buddhist doctrine, as well as archaic Sanskrit texts, Hindu philosophy, logic, and medicine ca 350 The Yamato culture of Japan spreads iron tool technology and advanced agricultural techniques across Japan and into Korea. 300s Nomadic people from the north pour into northern China following the dissolution of the Han dynasty. They establish large kingdoms there that will dominate the region for many successive centuries. They adopt many Chinese customs as well, gradually assimilating into the existing culture, with one distinct difference, a widespread acceptance of Buddhism. 300s Betrothal of girls eight or nine years old to men in their twenties is a common practice of Gupta era India. 365 Famous Chinese calligrapher Wang Xizhi dies. Even in his own lifetime, his signature is said to be priceless.
A	300s During the Classic period of Mays civilization, many intellectual endeavors are pursued, including formulation of a system of writing and a standard calendar based o the movements of celestial bodies 300s At the edges of swamps and rivers, the Maya excavate thin channels between rectangular plots of raised soil. This keeps the plots well watered and impervious to flooding at the same time, enabling farmers to yield several crops per year. 300s Maya people make sophisticated astronomical observances and develop a system of mathematics that incorporates the number zero.
	370 – 440 CE
MA	ca 390 Following Roman Emperor Theodosius I's outlawing of paganism, crowds destroy the temple of Serapis in Alexandria and, along with it, Alexandria's great library. 429 The Vandals invade Africa from Spain, capturing Carthage by 439. 372 The Orthodox Christian church St.Mary of Zion is built by Axumite King Ezana in Ethiopia. Probably the oldest Christian church in sub‑Saharan Africa it is said by some to house the remains of the original Ark of the Covenant. 396 Augustine of Hippo becomes a bishop in modern‑day Algeria. His writings, such as Confessions and City of God, synthesize Christian theology and Platonic logic and expound on topics such as the "just war" theory. 438 Jews are barred from public office in the Roman Empire. 431 Natorian Christians, persecuted by the Orthodox Roman emperor Zeno, flee to Persia India, bringing with them a number of Greek texts on medicine and astronomy. ca 400 Rev Ash! is one of the prime movers in the compilation of the Babylonian Talmud, a commentary on the Mishnah. At the same time, rabbis in Palestine compile the Palestinian Talmud, completed around 425.
E	378 Roman infantry forces led by Emperor Valens are annihilated by Visigothic and Ostrogothic horsemen at the Battle of Adrianople in modern day Turkey. 406 Groups of Vandals and other Germanic people, led by King Gunderic, invade and devastate much of the Roman province of Gaul. 4:10 Visigothic forces led by Alaric capture and sack Rome, having laid multiple sieges to it over the previous year. Though it has not been the capital of the empire for over a century, this represents the symbolic fall of the western Roman Empire. The invaders spare the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul. 405 The Rhine River in central Europe freezes over in the winter, facilitating the entry into the Roman Empire by a great number of Vandals, Alans, and other migratory groups. 407 Germanic tribes moving into northwest Europe bring with them the manufacture of butter and the cultivation of crops such as rye, oats, and hops. 380 Roman General turned emperor Theodosius I makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. He then begins a purging of all things pagan, destroying libraries and temples and abolishing the Olympic games. 428 Greek theologian and bishop of Contantinople, Nestorius, emphasizes Jesus' human as opposed to divine nature, sparking much conflict within the Catholic Church. 432 Patrick, a Christian bishop from Britain travels to Ireland as a missionary. He sets up his diocese at Armagh and begins trying to convert the island to Christianity. 430s Roman Emperor Theodosius II expands the triple walls of Constantinople and builds huge cisterns for water, making the city almost impossible to conquer. 376 The Huns, a nomadic group of people from eastern Asia, arrive on the frontier of the Roman Empire after defeating Goths living on the Danube River. Over the course of the next seven decades, they will carve out an empire of their own in central Europe. 410 During Alaric's multiple sieges of Rome, many Germanic slaves in the city join his side. In fact, Alaric's forces only enter Rome when a slave opens the gates for them. 415 The Visigoths move out of Italy and into southern Gaul and Spain, where they remain with their capital at Toledo for the next three centuries.
AO	375 Emperor Chandra Gupta II assumes the throne of the Gupta dynasty in northern India. During his reign, the art, architecture, and sculpture of northern India reaches a new height. After extending his rule west and south from the Ganges, peace and prosperity are said to grace his lands. ca 400‑450 The Gupta Empire of India repeatedly keeps the Hephthalites at bay in Bactria, at great expense to their treasury and to their central administration. 424 Luoyang falls to the northern We!, a regime established by Turkic people of northern China. ca 400 Chinese populations decline significantly as diseases find their way along the Silk Road to new areas that have no inherited or built‑up immunities. ca 400 Indian monk Kumarailva oversees Chinese translations of Buddhist texts in Chang'an. ca 400 Sanskrit poet Kalidasa is reputedly one of the nine gems of the court of Chardra Gupta II. He is widely considered one of the greatest of Sanskrit poets. ca 400 The 8hagavad Gita, a discourse on Hindu ethical teachings, takes on its final form after a number of revisions. 400s Under the patronage of the Gupta Empire, Hinduism gradually replaces Buddhism as the dominant religious and cultural tradition of India. ca 400 A suspension bridge measuring 400 the Sanchipan gorge in the Himalayas. ca 400 Advances in astronomy and mathematics are sponsored by the court of Chandra Gupta II in India. ca 400 The composite recurved bow, possessing so much tensile strength that its ends bend back upon themselves, is developed by nomads of northern and central Asia. ca 400 Emperor Chandra Gupta 11 maintains free rest houses for visitors to his empire, as well as free hospitals for his infirm subjects. 414 Faxian, Chinese scholar and monk, returns from India bringing Sanskrit texts that will become central to Chinese Buddhism. He writes a Treatise on Buddhist Kingdoms. 427 Tao Qian, Chinese Daoist poet, dies.
A	ca 400 The Hopewell culture of eastern North America gradually dissipates into less sedentary, more loosely organized groups of people. Mound building declines along with the Hopewell's network of trade. ca 400 Teotlhuacan approaches the height of its cultural sophistication. With perhaps over 150,000 inhabitants, it is one of the largest cities in the world. London by comparison has only a few tens of thousands of people. 400s Scarcity of food in the Great Basin region of western North America causes many inhabitants to pursue a migratory lifestyle. These people come to understand their environment intimately, so as to know when and where food will be available. Men bring down large game, while women pursue small game. To survive their harsh environment, both collect plants in wicker baskets. ca 400 The Maya ceremonial site of Cuajilote on the Caribbean coast of Mexico in Veracruz is constructed, complete with a steam bath house, presumably for communal bathing. ca 400 By this time, the peoples of Mesoamerica have developed the concept of the wheel but have made no use of it outside of toys produced for children. In the absence of beast of burden, wheeled vehicles may have served no use. ca 400 Teotihuacan continues to participate in an intensive trade network that stretches throughout Mesoamerica. It exports ceramics, clay figurines, and its most distinctive wares‑knives, points, and scrapers made of green obsidian. ca 400 Fremont culture develops in modern day Utah, southern Idaho, and adjacent portions of Colorado and Nevada. Its sedentary communities survive on horticulture. 417 Hleroglyphs in a tomb on the Rio Azul in modern day Guatemala record this as the birth date of an important Maya ruler; the name is lost to history.
	440 – 500 CE
MA	442 The Vandals, a Germanic group of migratory people, settle finally in North Africa with Carthage as their capital. The Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III recognizes their independence, yet Vandals continue to harass the crumbling Eastern Roman Empire. 484 Sassanid king Peroz I loses his life fighting the Hephthalites. Nobles become the real power in the Sassanid Empire. ca 490 The Soninke Empire emerges as a commercial power in West Africa. It controls trade in salt, gold, and other goods, and in ensuing centuries will link trans‑Saharan trade with Mediterranean economies demanding African gold. 400s The deserts of Palestine and North Africa become home to ascetic monks who live in solitary cells, in the open air, or on the tops of columns to separate themselves from the luxuries and temptations of the world. The best known of these if Simeon Stylites. ca 450 The great dam of Marib in Yemen, built in the seventh century B.C.E., is restored. 483 Nestorian Christians flourish in Persia after being evicted from the Eastern Roman Empire by orthodox Emperor Zeno. They will A carry their mission to China centuries before Jesuit missionary Marco Polo. ca 490 The Lydenburg heads, pieces of life size fired earthenware, are produced. The earliest known sculpture in southern Africa they are perhaps used in the rituals of agricultural communities. ca 496 The Mazdakite movement in Iran, preaching communality of goods and social equality, is persecuted by authorities.
E	441 Under the command of King Attila, the Huns launch a massive assault on the Roman Empire, invading first modern‑day Hungary, then the Balkan region, then Gaul and northern Italy. Nearly unstoppable, they wreak havoc until Attila's death in 453. 455 Vandals. led by King Galseric, invade Italy from North Africa, even taking Rome and plundering it of many works of art. 476 German chieftain Odoacer deposes the final western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and proclaims himself king. Though a Roman system of administration persists for a time, the western half of the Roman Empire is extinguished. ca 476 Angle, Saxon, and Jute invasions of England force many Celtic inhabitants to migrate across the English channel to Brittany, France. 480 An earthquake shakes Constantinople, the capital of the eastern Roman Empire, for a reputed 40 straight days. ca 450 Followers of Christian ascetics living in Egypt write down their words as the "Sayings of the Desert Fathers and Mothers.” 451 The ecumenical Council of Chalcedon institutionalizes the doctrines of Christianity as set out in the Nicene Creed. It brands the Nestorian and Monophysite branches of Christianity as heretical. 493 Clovis, King of the Franks, is baptized a Christian at the urging of his wife, Clothilde. He goes on to expand his reign throughout Gaul and lays the foundations for the most powerful kingdom of early medieval western Europe. ca 450 Eastern invaders into Europe bring with them the idea of nailed horseshoes. ca 455 After a number of attacks by germanic groups, much of northern Italy is devastated. Towns are walled in, farms are left vacant, and the population shrinks exponentially. 493 After assassinating Odoacer, Theodoric establishes an Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy with his capital at Ravenna.
AO	400s The Korean Peninsula is divided into three kingdoms, the Koguryo in the north, and the Paekche and Silla in the south. ca 450‑500 The Hephthalltes wear down the defenses of the Gupta Empire in India, which splits readily along fault lines of regional districts that have maintained a noncentral form of government. 485 The We! State of northern China implements a system of equal land distribution, in which it distinguishes between crop land and orchards. 400s Buddhism continues to attract converts in China, due largely to efforts of expatriot merchants from India, Parthia, and Central Asia. It will soon become the dominant faith throughout East Asia. 495 Work begins on the Buddhist cave temple at Longmen, near Luoyang, the new capital of the Northern Wei. 477 The stirrup is described for the first time in a Chinese text 444 Daoism becomes the official ideology of the Northern Wei kingdom in China.
A	ca 450 The Zapotec population of Monte Albbn (today's Oaxaca, Mexico) continues to grow. At its height, it may have had up to 30,000 inhabitants. ca 490 The population of Teotlhuacan begins to decline due to internal divisions and strife. This disrupts the trade networks and affects Monte Alban and many other Mesoamerican cities, which also experience a decline in population. ca 490 Leaders emerge among people of the northwest coast of North America. Each one's importance is tied to his ability to control resources and mobilize labor. 455 The Maya city of Chichen Itzi is founded on the Yucat6n Peninsula. Comprising six square miles, it will house numerous pyramid temples and an observatory. ca 450 An eighth stage of construction is completed on the Huaca del Sol, or Pyramid of the Sun, a Moche complex located near the peak of Cerro Blanco near modern‑day Trujillo, Peru. Over 100 million bricks are used in its construction, each one stamped with a maker's mark. ca 490 Peoples of the Northern Plains of North America develop the atiati dart point for use in hunting. ca 490 Peoples of the northwest coast of North America begin to exploit rich schools of salmon and other fish life as a food source.