HB-01-Religion

Man’s Religions

Near East Map

 

Africa & Mid East

250000  Modern humans emerge in Africa.

100000  Modern humans migrate to the Middle East.

7250  Catal Hoyok in Anatolia reaches a Population of 6000.

3200  Sumer, the first civilization. emerges in modern-day Iraq.

3100  Menes unites Upper and Lower Egypt

3000  Phoenicians settle the Syrian coast.

3000  The Hittites migrate into Anatolia.

2660-2180 Egypt’s Old Kingdom period .

2080-1640 Egypt’s Middle Kingdom period.

1960  Egypt invades Nubia.

1782  Hammurabi expands Babylon to include Sumer.

1700  Abraham’s Hebrew tribe leaves Babylon

1505  Queen Hatshepsut becomes ruler of Egypt.

1500  Ugarit's ships rule commerce in the Mediterranean.

1490-1436  Tutmosis III of Egypt expands the empire to Palestine, Syria, and Nubia.

1300  The Hebrews establish the kingdom of Israel.

1298-1232 Ramses II rules Egypt.

1250  Moses

1180  The Hittite homeland in Anatolia is invaded, ending the empire.

1174  The 12 tribes of Israel, ruled by judges meet at the sanctuary of Shiloh to agree on a united front.

1173  The Elamites sack Babylon.

1125  Israelites fight against the Canaanites in the Battle of Megiddo.

1100  Incursions by Aramaeans into Assyria and Babylon destroy both countries.

1075  Chaos marks the end of the New Kingdom period in Egypt.

1050  Samuel, the prophet and last of the judges. becomes ruler of Israel.

1025  Saul becomes king of Israel.

1000 David becomes king of Israel. Uniting Judah and Israel.

1000 Indo-European Medes and Persians migrate from Central Asia to Iran.

960-925  Solomon succeeds his father David, At his death. his sons split Israel in two.

920 The Assyrians begin to reconquer lost territories.

900  The Nubian kingdam of Kush establishes its capital at Napata.

883-859  Assyria regains its lost land and becomes again a great power in Mesopotamia.

876-869  King Omri rules in Samaria. Israel.

859-824  Assyrian King Shalmaneser III invades Syria. He is stopped by a coalition including Israel.

800  Assyria embraces Mesopotamia. Syria, Palestine, and parts of Anatolia.

750  Phoenician colony of Carthage N. Africa develops into a hub of trade for the western Mediterranean.

750  The Nubian kingdom of Kush conquers Egypt and rules for 100 years.

721  Israel falls to Assyria, Hebrews are exiled.

700 Mounted horsemen-Cimmerians and Scythians-sweep into the Middle East.

 664 Assyrian king Sargon II falls in battle.

664  Assyrians drive Nubians out of Egypt. Nubian kings move capital from Napata south to Meroe.

647  Assyrians vanquish the Elamites in Iran.

614  Assyria collapses.

587  Nebuchadrezzar II sacks the kingdom of Judah. Many people are carried off as captives to Babylon.

558-529  Cyrus the Great rules Elam and Persia and conquers Media, Asia Minor, and Babylon. The Jews are permitted to return to Jerusalem. Cyrus's son Cambyses gains Egypt.

552  Darius I succeeds as ruler of Persia.

 

Primitive

These leave little known except from cave art and artifacts.  Primitive tribes, now all gone, left some clues.   Humans had a need to believe something, to explain the unknown.  Their imaginations created spirits, good and bad – dealt with reverence and fear. They had beliefs for birth, daily fortunes, death and life after death.

Representative Religions of the Past

Egypt   Bqabylon  Greece  Rome   Celts-Teutons-Slaves (=Indo-European = Aryan)-

The Near East was at the center of early civilizations and at the crossroads of commerce and conflict.  The oldest written records of religious beliefs come from the Babylonians and Egyptians.  The Egyptians protected by the desert and supported by the Nile were for a long time undisturbed by conflicting religious views.  The Babylonians, later known as Persians, were exposed to outside influences.  Most surviving early records are those engraved on stone or inscriptions on baked clay tablets.  Wars commerce, migrations brought beliefs of others to the Greeks and the Romans incorporated much from the Greeks. 

Indo-European “Aryans” armed with iron swords *  and on horseback migrated into India and Persia (Iran) bringing their beliefs and language with them.  The true origin of these north of the Alps people is unknown as they fanned out in all directions and were also known as Celtics, Teutons & Slavs.  Their beliefs were handed down by repeated oral tales and celebrations – eventually committed to writing.  The beliefs carried with them appear in far ranging sources as Ice Land Nordic tales, India Early Hindu and Persia Early Zorastor beliefs. 

*  {Iron had been used in Mesopotamia as early as 2500 BC. The Hitites, who spoke Indo-European language, were the first to use iron on a large scale by 1500 BC.  The Indo-Europeans brought the horse & chariot to Persia.}

Though undergoing name changes and modified by further generations, many of these Past Religion beliefs are included in the fundamentals of Judaism, Christianity & Islam. 

This movement of peoples accounts for similarities between old European & old Indian languages.  Early Hindu and early Zoraster had common Celtic & Teutonic roots that mixed with prior local beliefs.

Names as Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday are Anglo Saxon translations of prior Celtic, Teutonic words for gods.  Names of planets as Mercury & Mars come from names applied to their gods.

The Religions of India

Early Hinduism    Jainism    Early Buddhism     Later Buddhism    Later Hinduism     Sikhism.

 

The Religions of East Asia

Native Chinese    Taoism     Confuciusism     Shinto      Native Japanese

 

The Religion of the Near East

Zoroaster’s  Judaism  Christianity    Development of Christianity   Islam   

 

Judaism

            The determining factors of Judaism are: descendents from Israel, the Torah, and Tradition. The name Israel (Jacob, a patriarch) also signifies his descendants as a people. During the 15th - 13th centuries BC, Israelite tribes, coming from South and East, gradually settled in Palestine, then inhabited by Canaanites. They were held together by Moses, who gave them religious unity in the worship of Jahweh, the God who had chosen Israel to be his people.

            Under Judges, the 12 tribes at first formed an amphictyonic covenant. Saul established kingship (circa 1050 BC), and under David, his successor (1000-960 BC), the State of Israel comprised all of Palestine with Jerusalem as religio-political center. A golden era followed under Solomon (965-926 BC), who built Jahweh a temple.

            After Solomon's death, the kingdom separated into Israel in the North and Judah in the South. A period of conflicts ensued, which ended with the conquest of Israel by Assyria in 722 BC The Babylonians defeated Judah in 586 BC, destroying Jerusalem and its temple, and deporting many to Babylon.

            The era of the kings is significant also in that the great prophets worked in that time, emphasizing faith in Jahweh as both God of Israel and God of the universe, and stressing social justice.

            When the Persians permitted the Jews to return from exile (539 .c), temple and cult were restored in Jerusalem. The Persian rulers were succeeded by the Seleucides. The Maccabaean revolt against these Hellenistic kings gave independence to the Jews in 128 .c, which lasted till the Romans occupied the country.

            Important groups that exerted influence during these times were the Sadducees, priests in the temple in Jerusalem; the Pharisees, teachers of the Law in the synagogues; Essenes, a religious order (from whom Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in 1947, came); Apocalyptists, who were expecting the heavenly Messiah; and Zealots, who were prepared to fight for national independence.

            When the latter turned against Rome in AD 66, Roman armies under Titus suppressed the revolt, destroying Jerusalem and its temple in AD 70. The Jews were scattered in the diaspora (Dispersion), subject to oppressions until the Age of the Enlightenment (18th century) brought their emancipation, although persecutions did not end entirely.

            The fall of the Jerusalem temple was an important event in the religious life of the Jews, which now developed around Torah (Law) and synagogue. Around AD 100 the Sacred Scriptures were codified. Synagogue worship became central, with readings from Torah and prophets. Most important prayers are the Shema (Hear) and the Prayer of the 18 Benedictions.

            Religious life is guided by the commandments contained in the Torah: circumcision and Sabbath, as well as other ethical and ceremonial commandments.

            The Talmud, based on the Mishnah and its interpretations, took shape over many centuries in the Babylonian and Palestinian Schools. It was a strong binding force of Judaism in the Dispersion.

            In the 12th century, Maimonides formulated his "13 Articles of Faith," which carried great authority. Fundamental in this creed are. belief in God and his oneness (Sherma), belief in the changeless Torah, in the words of Moses and the prophets, belief in reward and punishment, the coming of the Messiah, and the resurrection of the dead.

            Judaism is divided into theological schools, the main divisions of which are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform.

Christianity

            Christianity is founded upon Jesus Christ, to whose life the New Testament writings testify. Jesus, a Jew, was born in about 7 BC and assumed his public life, after his 30th year, in Galilee. The Gospels tell of many extraordinary deeds that accompanied his ministry. He proclaimed the Kingdom of God, a future reality that is at the same time already present. Nationalistic-Jewish expectations of the Messiah he rejected. Rather, he referred to himself as the "Son of Man," the Christ, who has power to forgive sins now and who shall also come as Judge at the end of time.

            Jesus set forth the religio-ethical demands for participation in the Kingdom of God as change of heart and love of God and neighbor.

            At the Last Supper he signified his death as a sacrifice, which would inaugurate the New Covenant, by which many would be saved. Circa AD 30 he died on a cross in Jerusalem. The early Church carried on Jesus' proclamation, the apostle Paul emphasizing his death and resurrection.

            The person of Jesus is fundamental to the Christian faith since it is believed that in his life, death, and resurrection, God's revelation became historically tangible. He is seen as the turning point in history, and man's relationship to God as determined by his attitude to Jesus.

            Historically Christianity thus arose out of Judaism, claiming fulfillment of the promises of the Old Testament in Jesus. The early Church designated itself as "the true Israel," which expected the speedy return of Jesus. The mother church was at Jerusalem, but churches were soon founded in many other places.

            The apostle Paul was instrumental in founding and extending a Gentile Christianity that was free from Jewish legalism.  The new religion spread rapidly throughout the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire. In coming to terms with other religious movements within the Empire, Christianity began to take definite shape as an organization in its doctrine, liturgy, and ministry circa AD 200. In the 4th century the Catholic Church had taken root in countries stretching from Spain in the West to Persia and India in the East.

            Christians had been repeatedly subject to persecution by the Roman state, but finally gained tolerance under Constantine the Great (AD 313). Since that time, the Church became favored under his successors and in 380 the Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the State religion. Paganism was suppressed and public life was gradually molded in accordance with Christian ethical demands.  It was in these years also that the Church was able to achieve a certain unity of doctrine. Due to differences of interpretation of basic doctrines concerning Christ, which threatened to divide the Catholic Church, a standard Christian Creed was formulated by bishops at successive Ecumenical Councils, the first of which was held in AD 325 (Nicaea). The chief doctrines formulated concerned the doctrine of the Trinity, i.e., that there is one God in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Constantinople, AD 381); and the nature of Christ as both divine and human (Chalcedon, AD 541). Through differences and rivalry between East and West the unity of the Church was broken by schism in 1054. In 1517 a separation occurred in the Western Church with the Reformation. From the major Protestant denominations [Lutheran, Presbyterian, Anglican (Episcopalian)], many Free Churches separated themselves in an age of individualism.

            In the 20th century, however, the direction is toward unity. The Ecumenical Movement led to the formation of the World Council of Churches in 1948 (Amsterdam), which has since been joined by many Protestant and Orthodox Churches. Through its missionary activity Christianity has spread to most parts of the globe.

Eastern Orthodoxy

            Eastern Orthodoxy comprises the faith and practice of Churches stemming from ancient Churches in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire. The term covers Orthodox Churches in communion with the See of Constantinople and Nestorian and Monophysite Churches.

            The Orthodox, Catholic, Apostolic Church is the direct descendant of the Byzantine State Church and consists of a series of independent national churches that are united by Doctrine, Liturgy, and Hierarchical organization (deacons and priests, who may either be married or be monks before ordination, and bishops, who must be celibates). The heads of these Churches are patriarchs or metropolitans; the Patriarch of Constantinople is only "first among equals." Rivalry between the Pope of Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople, aided by differences and misunderstandings that existed for centuries between the Eastern and Western parts of the Empire, led to a schism in 1054. Repeated attempts at reunion have failed in past centuries. The mutual excommunication pronounced in that year was lifted in 1965, however, and because of greater interaction in theology between Orthodox Churches and those in the West, a climate of better understanding has been created in the 20th century. First contacts were with Anglicans and Old Catholics. Orthodox Churches belong to the World Council of Churches.

            The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize only the canons of the seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787) as binding for faith and they reject doctrines that have been added in the West.

            The central worship service is called the Liturgy, which is understood as representation of God's acts of salvation. Its center is the celebration of the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper.

            In their worship icons (sacred pictures) are used that have a sacramental meaning as representation. The Mother of Christ, angels, and saints are highly venerated.

            The number of sacraments in the Orthodox Church is the same as in the Western Catholic Church. Orthodox Churches are found in the Balkans and the Soviet Union also, since the 20th century, in Western Europe and other parts of the world, particularly in America.

Eastern Rite Churches

            These include the Uniate Churches that recognize the authority of the Pope but keep their own traditional liturgies and those Churches dating back to the 5th century that emanicipated themselves from the Byzantine State Church: the Nestorian Church in the Near East and India and the Monophysite Churches (Coptic, Ethiopian, Syrian, Armenian, and the Mar Thoma Church in India).

Roman Catholicism

            Roman Catholicism comprises the belief and practice of the Roman Catholic Church. The Church stands under the authority of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, and is ruled by him and bishops who are held to be, through ordination, successors of Peter and the Apostles, respectively. Fundamental to the structure of the Church is the juridical aspect: doctrine and sacraments are bound to the power of jurisdiction and consecration of the hierarchy. The Pope, as the head of the hierarchy of archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons, has full ecclesiastical power, granted him by Christ, through Peter. As successor to Peter, he is the Vicar of Christ. The powers that others in the hierarchy possess are delegated.

            Roman Catholics believe their Church to be the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church, possessing all the properties of the one, true Church of Christ.

            The faith of the Church is understood to be identical with that taught by Christ and his Apostles and contained in Bible and Tradition, i.e. the original deposit of faith, to which nothing new may be added.  New definitions of doctrines, such as the Immaculate Conception of Mary (1854) and the bodily Assumption of Mary ( 1950), have been declared by Popes, however, in accordance with the principle of development (implicit-explicit doctrine).

            At Vatican Council I (1870) the Pope was proclaimed "endowed with infallibility, ex cathedra, i.e., when exercising the office of Pastor and Teacher of all Christians."

            The center of Roman Catholic worship is the celebration of the Mass, the Eucharist, which is the commemoration of Christ's sacrificial death and of his resurrection. Other sacraments are Baptism, Confirmation, Confession, Matrimony, Ordination, and Extreme Unction, seven in all. The Virgin Mary and saints, and their relics, are highly venerated and prayers are made to them to intercede with God, in whose presence they are believed to dwell.

            The Roman Catholic Church is the largest Christian organization in the world, found in most countries. Since Vatican Council II (1962-65), and the effort to "update" the Church, many interesting changes and developments have been taking place.

Protestantism

            Protestantism comprises the Christian churches that separated from Rome during the Reformation in the 16th century, initiated by an Augustinian monk, Martin Luther. "Protestant" was originally applied to followers of Luther, who protested at the Diet of Spires (1529) against the decree which prohibited all further ecclesiastical reforms. Subsequently, Protestantism came to mean rejection of attempts to tie God's revelation to earthly institutions, and a return to the Gospel and the Word of God as sole authority in matters of faith and practice. Central in the biblical message is the justification of the sinner by faith alone. The Church is understood as a fellowship and the priesthood of all believers stressed.

            The Augsburg Confession (1530) was the principal statement of Lutheran faith and practice. It became a model for other Confessions of Faith, which in their turn had decisive influence on Church policy. Major Protestant denominations are the Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), Presbyterian, and Anglican (Episcopal). Smaller ones are the Mennonite, Schwenkfeldians, and Unitarians. In Great Britain and America there are the Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers, Methodists, and other free church types of communities.  (In regarding themselves as being faithful to original biblical Christianity, these Churches differ from such religious bodies as Unitarians, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Christian Scientists, who either teach new doctrines or reject old ones.)

            Since the latter part of the 19th century, national councils of churches have been established in many countries, e.g. the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America in 1908. Denominations across countries joined in federations and world alliances, beginning with the Anglican Lambeth Conference in 1867.

            Protestant missionary activity, particularly strong in the last century, resulted in the founding of many younger churches in Asia and Africa. The Ecumenical Movement, which originated with Protestant missions, aims- at unity among Christians and churches.

Islam

            Islam is the religion founded in Arabia by Mohammed between 610 and 632. There are an estimated 2.6 million Moslems in Northern America and 950 million Moslems worldwide.

            Mohammed was born in AD 570 at Mecca and belonged to the Quraysh tribe, which was active in caravan trade. At the age of 25 he joined the caravan trade from Mecca to Syria in the employment of a rich widow, Khadiji, whom he married. Critical of the idolatry of the inhabitants of Mecca, he began to lead a contemplative life in the deserts. There he received a series of revelations. Encouraged by Khadiji, he gradually became convinced that he was given a God-appointed task to devote himself to the reform of religion and society. Idolatry was to be abandoned.

            The Hegira (Hijra) (migration) of Mohammed from Mecca, where he was not honored, to Medina, where he was well received, occurred in 622 and marks the beginning of the Muslim era. In 630 he marched on Mecca and conquered it. He died at Medina in 632. His grave there has since been a place of pilgrimage.

            Mohammed's followers, called Moslems, revered him as the prophet of Allah (God), beside whom there is no other God. Although he had no close knowledge of Judaism and Christianity, he considered himself succeeding and completing them as the seal of the Prophets. Sources of the Islamic faith are the Quran, regarded as the uncreated, eternal Word of God, and Tradition (hadilh) regarding sayings and deeds of the prophet.

            Islam means surrender to the will of Allah. He is the all-powerful, whose will is supreme and determines man's fate. Good deeds will be rewarded at the Last Judgment in paradise and evil deeds will be punished in hell.

            The Five Pillars, primary duties, of Islam are: witness; confessing the oneness of God and of Mohammed, his prophet; prayer, to be performed five times a day; almsgiving to the poor and the mosque (house of worship); fasting during daylight hours in the month of Ramadan; and pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in the Moslem's lifetime.

            Islam, upholding the law of brotherhood, succeeded in uniting an Arab world that had disintegrated into tribes and castes. Disagreements concerning the succession of the prophet caused a great division in Islam between Sulinis and Shias. Among these, other sects arose (Wahhabi). Doctrinal issues also led to the rise of different schools of thought in theology. Nevertheless, since Arab armies turned against Syria and Palestine in 635, Islam has expanded successfully under Mohammed's successors. Its rapid conquests in Asia and Africa are unsurpassed in history. Turning against Europe, Moslems conquered Spain in 713. In 1453 Constantinople fell into their hands and in 1529 Moslem armies besieged Vienna. Since then, Islam has lost its foothold in Europe. In modern times it has made great gains in Africa.

Hinduism

            Hinduism is the major religion of India where there are over 550 million adherents. In contrast to other religions, it has no founder. Considered the oldest religion in the world, it dates back, perhaps, to prehistoric times.

            Hinduism is hard to define, there being no common creed, no one doctrine to bind Hindus together.  Intellectually there is complete freedom of belief, and one can be monotheist, polytheist, or atheist. The most important sacred texts of the Hindu religion are written in Sanskrit and called the Vedas (Veda-knowledge). There are four Vedic books, of which the Rig-Veda is the oldest. It speaks of many gods and also deals with questions concerning the universe and creation. The dates of these works are unknown (1000 BC?).

            The Upanishads (dated 1000-300 BC), commentaries on the Vedic texts, have philosophical speculations on the origin of the universe, the nature of deity, of atman (the human soul), and its relationship to Brahman (the universal soul).

            Brahman is the principle and source of the universe who can be indicated only by negatives. As the divine intelligence, he is the ground of the visible world, a presence that pervades all beings. Thus the many Hindu deities came to be understood as manifestations of the one Brahman from whom everything proceeds and to whom everything ultimately returns. The religio-social system of Hinduism is based on the concept of reincarnation and transmigration in which all living beings, from plants below to gods above, are caught in a cosmic system that is an everlasting cycle of becoming and perishing.

            Life is determined by the law of karma, according to which rebirth is dependent on moral behavior in a previous phase of existence. In this view, life on earth is regarded as transient (maya) and a burden. The goal of existence is liberation from the cycle of rebirth and redeath and entrance into the indescribable state of what in Buddhism is called nirvana (extinction of passion).

            Further important sacred writings are the Epics (ithasas), which contain legendary stories about gods and men. They are the Mahabharata (composed between 200 BC and AD 200) and the Ramayana. The former includes the poem Bhagavad-Gita (Song of the Lord).

            The practice of Hinduism consists of rites and ceremonies centering on the main socio-religious occasions of birth, marriage, and death. There are many Hindu temples, which are dwelling places of the deities and to which people bring offerings. There are also places of pilgrimages, the chief one being Benares on the Ganges, most sacred among the rivers in India.

Orthodox Hindu society in India was divided into four major hereditary casts. I) Brahmans (priestly and learned class); 2) Kshatriyas (military, professional, rulers and governing occupations); 3) Vaisyas (landowners, merchants, and business occupations); and 4) Sudras (aI1isans, laborers, and peasants). Below the Sudras was a fifth group, the untouchables (lowest menial occupations and no social standing). The Indian government banned discrimination against the untouchables in 1949.

In modern times work has been done to reform and revive Hinduism. One of the outstanding reformers was Ramakrishna (1836-86), who inspired many followers, one of whom founded the Ramakrishna mission. The mission is active both in India and in other countries and is known for its scholarly and humanitarian works.

Buddhism

Founded in the 6th century BC in northern India by Gautama Buddha, who was born in southern Nepal as son to a king. His birth is surrounded by many legends, but Western scholars agree that he lived from 563 to 483 BC Warned by a sage that his son would become an ascetic or a universal monarch, the king confined him to his home. He was able to escape and began the life of a homeless wanderer in search of peace, passing through many disappointments until he finally came to the Tree of Enlightenment, under which he lived in meditation till enlightenment came to him and he became a Buddha (enlightened one).

Now he understood the origin of suffering, summarized in the Four Noble Truths, which constitutes the foundation of Buddhism. The Four are the truth of suffering, which all living beings must endure; of the origin of suffering, which is craving and which leads to rebirth; that it can be destroyed; and of the way that leads to cessation of pain, i.e., the Noble Eight-fold Way, which is the rule of practical Buddhism; right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right concentration, and right ecstasy.

            Nirvana is the goal of all existence, the state of complete redemption, into which the redeemed enters. Buddha's insight can free every man from the law of reincarnation through complete emptying of the self.

            The nucleus of Buddha's church or association was originally formed by monks and lay-brothers, whose houses gradually became monasteries used as places for religious instruction. The worship service consisted of a sermon, expounding of Scripture, meditation, and confession. At a later stage pilgrimages to the holy places associated with the Buddha came into being, as well as veneration of relics.

            In the 3rd century BC, King Ashoka made Buddhism the State religion of India but, as centuries passed, it gradually fell into decay through splits, .persecutions, and the hostile Brahmans. Buddhism spread to countries outside India, however.

            At the beginning of the Christian era, there occurred a split that gave rise to two main types: Hinayana (Lillie Vehicle), or southern Buddhism, and Mahayana (Great Vehicle), or northern Buddhism.  The former type, more individualistic, survived in Ceylon and southern Asia. Hinayana retained more closely the original teachings of the Buddha, which did not know of a personal god or soul. Mahayana, more social, polytheistic, and developing a pluralistic pompous cult, was strong in the Himalayas, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, and Japan.

            In the present century, Buddhism has found believers also in the West and there are an estimated 554,000 Buddhists in Northern America.

Confucianism

            Confucius (K'ung Fu-tzu), born in the state of Lu (northern China), lived from 551 to 479 BC Tradition, exaggerating the importance of Confucius in life, has depicted him as a great statesman but, in fact, he seems to have been a private teacher. Anthologies of ancient Chinese classics, along with his own Analects (Lun Yu). became the basis of Confucianism. These Analects were transmilled as a collection of his sayings as recorded by his students, with whom he discussed ethical and social problems. They developed into men of high moral standing, who served the State as administrators.

            In his teachings, Confucius emphasized the importance of an old Chinese concept ([i), which has the connotation of proper conduct. There is some disagreement as to the religious ideas of Confucius, but he held high the concepts handed down from centuries before him. Thus he believed in Heaven (T'ien) and sacrificed to his ancestors. Ancestor worship he indeed encouraged as an expression of filial piety, -which he considered the loftiest of virtues.

            Piety to Confucius was the foundation of the family as well as the State. The family is the nucleus of the State, and the "five relations," between king and subject, father and son, man and wife, older, and -younger brother, and friend and friend, are determined by the virtues of love of fellow men, righteousness, and respect.

An extension of ancestor worship may be seen in the worship of Confucius, which became official in the 2nd century BC when the emperor, in recognition of Confucius' teachings as supporting the imperial rule, offered sacrifices at his tomb.

            Mencius (Meng Tse), who lived around 400 BC, did much to propagate and elaborate Confucianism in its concern with ordering society. Thus, for two millennia, Confucius' doctrine of State, with its emphasis on ethics and social morality, rooted in ancient Chinese tradition and developed and continued by his disciples, has been standard in China and the Far East.

            With the revolution of 1911 in China, however, students, burning Confucius in effigy, called for the removal of "the old curiosity shop."

Shintoism

            Shinto, the Chinese term for the Japanese Kami no Michi, i.e., the Way of the Gods, comprises the religious ideas and cult indigenous to Japan. Kami. Or gods, considered divine forces of nature that are worshipped, may reside in rivers, trees, rocks, mountains, certain animals, or, particularly, in the sun and moon.  The worship of ancestors, heroes, and deceased emperors was incorporated later.

            After Buddhism had come from Korea, Japan's native religion at first resisted it. Then there followed a period of compromise and amalgamation with Buddhist beliefs and ceremonies, resulting, since the 9th century AD, in a syncretistic religion, a Twofold Shinto. Buddhist deities came to be regarded as manifestations of Japanese deities and Buddhist priests took over most of the Shinto shrines.

            In modern times Shinto regained independence from Buddhism. Under the reign of the Emperor Meiji (1868-1912) it became the official State religion, in which loyalty to the emperor was emphasized. The line of succession of emperors is traced back to the first Emperor Jimmu (660 BC) and beyond him to the Sun-goddess Amaterasuomikami.

            The centers of worship are the shrines and temples in which the deities are believed to dwell and believers approach them through torii (gateways). Most important among the shrines is the imperial shrine of the Sun-goddess at Ise, where state ceremonies were once held in June and December. The Yasukuni shrine of the war dead in Tokyo is also well known.

            Acts of worship consist of prayers, clapping of hands, acts of purification, and offerings. On feast days processions and performances of music and dancing take place and priests read prayers before the gods in the shrines, asking for good harvest, the well-being of people and emperor, etc. In Japanese homes there is a god-shelf, a small wooden shrine that contains the tablets bearing the names of ancestors. Offerings are made and candles lit before it.

            After World War II the Allied Command ordered the disestablishment of State Shinto. To be distinguished from State Shinto is Sect Shinto, consisting of 13 recognized sects. These have arisen in modern times. Most important among them is Tenrikyo in Tenri City (Nara), in which healing by faith plays a central role.

Taoism

            Taoism, a religion of China, was, according to tradition, founded by Lao Tse, a Chinese philosopher, long considered one of the prominent religious leaders from the 6th century BC

            Data about him are for the most part legendary, however, and the Tao Te Ching (the classic of the Way and of its Power), traditionally ascribed to him, is now believed by many scholars to have originated in the 3rd century BC The book is composed in short chapters, written in aphoristic rhymes. Central are the word Tao, which means way or path and, in a deeper sense, signifies the principle that underlies the reality of this world and manifests itself in nature and in the lives of men, and the word Te (power).

            The virtuous man draws power from being absorbed in Tao, the ultimate reality within an ever changing world. By non-action and keeping away from human striving it is possible for man to live in harmony with the principles that underlie and govern the universe. Tao cannot be comprehended by reason and knowledge, but only by inward quiet.

            Besides the Tao Te Ching, dating from approximately the same period, there are two Taoist works, written by Chuang Tse and Lieh Tse.

            Theoretical Taoism of this classical philosophical movement of the 4th and 3rd centuries .c in China differed from popular Taoism, into which it gradually degenerated. The standard of theoretical Taoism was maintained in the classics, of course, and among the upper classes it continued to be alive until modem times.

            Religious Taoism is a form of religion dealing with deities and spirits, magic and soothsaying. In the 2nd century AD it was organized with temples, cult, priests, and monasteries and was able to hold its own in the competition with Buddhism that came up at the same time.

            After the 7th century AD,  however, Taoist religion further declined. Split into numerous sects, which often operate like secret societies, it has become a syncretistic folk religion in which some of the old deities and saints live on.